Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 SHR – Biology 20
SHR – Smith & Huber Residence
This is a publication of the Smith & Huber Family
members of the Smith & Huber Residence
Some portions and images of this document were taken from other sources.
We do not credit all document content as our own.
Care has been taken to trace ownership of copyright material contained in this text.
The publishers will gladly accept any information that will enable them to rectify any
reference or credit in subsequent printings.
The information and activities in this textbook have been carefully developed and
reviewed by professionals to ensure safety and accuracy. However, the publisher shall
not be liable for any damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the reader’s use of
the material. Although appropriate safety procedures are discussed and highlighted
throughout the textbook, the safety of students remains the responsibility of the
classroom teacher, the principal, and the school board district.
3 SHR – Biology 20
Lymphatic Defense System ...................................................................................... 28
Blood Types .............................................................................................................. 30
Immune System Disorders........................................................................................ 31
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM...................................................................... 32
STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM........................................................ 32
BREATHING AND RESPIRATION .............................................................................. 34
The Mechanics of Breathing..................................................................................... 34
Respiratory Volume .................................................................................................. 34
Gas Exchange and External Respiration................................................................... 35
RESPIRATORY HEALTH ............................................................................................. 35
CELLULAR RESPIRATION........................................................................................... 37
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION STEPS............................................................ 37
Oxygen’s Importance................................................................................................ 39
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION ....................................................................................... 40
FERMENTATION ......................................................................................................... 40
Lactic Fermentation .................................................................................................. 40
Ethanol Fermentation................................................................................................ 40
PHOTOSYNTHESIS........................................................................................................ 41
The Light Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis ...................................................... 41
....................................................................................................................................... 42
The Light Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis.................................................... 43
MUSCLE CONTROL ...................................................................................................... 44
SKELETAL MUSCLE ................................................................................................... 45
Skeletal Muscle Cooperation .................................................................................... 45
Skeletal Muscle Fibers.............................................................................................. 45
How Muscle Fibers Contract .................................................................................... 46
Creation of Energy Required for Muscle Contraction.............................................. 48
MUSCLES AND HEALTH............................................................................................ 48
Common Ailments of Muscles ................................................................................. 49
Muscle Twitch .......................................................................................................... 49
Slow Twitch and Fast Twitch ................................................................................... 49
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM ......................................................................................... 50
ANATOMY OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM ............................................................... 50
5 SHR – Biology 20
PREFACE TO BIOLOGY 20
The cell is the smallest unit of life known in living creatures. In order to gain an
appreciation and understanding for modern day Biology, we need to first understand the
structure and functions of the microcellular components, and how the cells interact.
Both plants and animals, as well as some bacteria and fungi, are made of eukaryotic cells,
or cells with a nucleus. Although the plant cell has some organelles specific to only
itself, the animal cell organelles are the same for any cell. Below is a diagram of a
animal cell, and its components:
The cell membrane is a structure on the outside of the cell that acts as a semi-permeable
barrier between the outside world and the inside of the cell. It also controls the transport
of particles into and out of the cell.
All the organelles of the cell live in a gel like substance cytoplasm which is comprised of
the chemicals required to sustain life, and minerals that can be absorbed for energy.
Alike a City Hall, the nucleus is the command center of the cell. It contains the
imprinting of DNA in order to create the proteins responsible for cellular functions, the
basic components of life. It is surrounded by a double layer of membrane to protect it
from radioactivity. The chromatin is the unchained DNA strands within the nucleus.
The nucleus requires the ability to take in macromolecules and send ribosome out.
Nuclear pores serve that function.
Ribosome help to build proteins and are comprised of two tiny structures working
together.
The Golgi Apparatus receives the macromolecules from the smooth ER, and package
them into vesicles, using proteins and lipids and prepares them for secretion out of the
cell via the cell membrane.
The centrosome ensures the even distribution of cell organelles in the event of cell
duplication. Its dual centrioles and close proximity to the nucleus help facilitate this.
There are two different types of transport “containers” within the cell, varying on the
size. Vesicles are small sacs that move small amounts of particles inside or outside of the
cell. The vacuole is a massive fluid filled sac that serves as a storage facility for food,
sugar energy and waste.
The cytoslekeleton ensures that the cell retains a useable shape, through a system of
three fibers, actin filament, micro filament and microtubules.
7 SHR – Biology 20
Other particles in the cell membrane facilitate transport of macromolecules into the cell,
and create passageways for water to flow.
Particles and ions can cross the membrane of the cell in a variety of ways. These
methods can be either classified as passive, where heat energy is used to move the
particles, or active; where both heat and energy from sugars are used.
Passive Transport
Passive transport refers to molecules moving from areas of greater concentration to areas
of lesser concentration. This is also known as movement with the concentration
gradient. All methods of passive transport move with the concentration gradient, and
therefore do not require energy from sugars.
Many molecules, such as oxygen are able to move via diffusion, and cannot be readily
stopped by the cell membrane, due to its permeability.
The diffusion of a solvent, such as water is known with a special term, osmosis. Which
direction osmosis occurs depends once again on the concentration gradient. If there is an
equal concentration of solvent particles inside and outside of the cell, (isotonic) there is
no osmosis occurring. If the cell is hypertonic, that means that there is more water
inside the cell then outside, and water flows freely out of the cell. Likewise, if the cell is
hypotonic, water flows in, as there is less water inside the cell then outside.
Facilitated diffusion
permits molecules that are
too large to simply diffuse
through the membrane into
the cell. Glucose
molecules enter the cell
through utilizing special
carrier proteins (see figure
left), which facilitate the diffusion. The carrier proteins will only
accept a non-charged molecule with a certain shape. Charged
ions pass through tunnels, known as channel proteins, which will
only fit certain sized ions, in order to help them diffuse into the
cell (see figure right).
Active transport requires one of the photospheres in ATP (adenosine Triphosphate) sugar
created for the cells be split in order to release energy, which can then be applied to
actively transporting materials the opposite direction from the concentration gradient.
The cell membrane can fold, and create vesicles to take in particles which usually would
not fit inside of it. The process where the cell membrane folds in order to take in a
molecule (such as cholesterol) is known as endocytosis. Endocytosis has three forms,
pinocytosis,
phagocytosis and
receptor assisted
endocytosis.
Pinocytosis refers
to the movement
of small liquid
particles, whereas
phagocytosis is the movement of larger droplets of intercellular fluid, bacteria or organic
matter. Receptor assisted endocytosis involves using a special membrane receptor
protein that will latch onto the molecule it is made for and transport it into the cell. All
three methods of endocytosis are shown in the figure right.
Exocytosis removes cell wastes from the cell by having a vesicle transport the waste to
the cell membrane, and then latching onto the membrane, and opening to release the
waste into the fluidic space between the cells.
9 SHR – Biology 20
DIGESTION AND HUMAN HEALTH
Within the body lies the cells. In between the cells is fluid and blood. And within that
fluid are thousands of different particles. Some, such as water and oxygen, are simple
enough. Other large complicated collections of molecules, known as macromolecules are
grouped into four categories: carbohydrates, lipids (such as fats), proteins, and nucleic
acids. Many macromolecules form polymers, long chain of repeating chemicals that
control the most important functions of the body.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are macromolecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and
usually in the same proportions (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom for each atom
of carbon). Carbohydrates provide short or long term energy storage for a creature.
There are two main types of carbohydrates. Simple sugars are made up of three to seven
carbon atoms, and the
corresponding number
of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. On
their own, simple
sugars are known as
monosaccharides
while in pairs they are called disaccharides. Simple sugars are synthesized and
desynthesized according to the process noted above, and shown in the figure left. The
disaccharide, maltose, is commonly found in alcoholic beverages.
Lipids
Lipids are a group of macronutrients that are not soluble in water. They have many
functions, including forming cell membranes, storing energy and fat (they store 2.25
times more energy then carbohydrates) or forming steroids, which are sex hormones
estrogen and testosterone.
Lipids exist in our food as fats, such as those in solid or liquid form. Fats are solid at
room temperature, and are found in butter and many other dairy products (among other
things), while oils are liquid at room temperature, and are found in salad dressing and
other liquids.
The formation of fats is actually quite interesting. The glycol molecule reacts with three
fatty acids to form a triglyceride (see figure left). Triglycerides are composed similarly,
however the fatty acids may be difference in size or in saturation. Saturated fats are
triglycerides where the fatty acids does not have a covalent bond between its carbon
atoms, which means that it
contains all the hydrogen ions
that it could possibly bond
with. Unsaturated fats do
have double bonds between
the hydrogen atoms.
Saturated fats are usually
solid at room temperature,
while unsaturated fats are
usually liquid. Next time you purchase a food product from the store, see if you can spot
the saturated fats content on the label!
Proteins
Proteins are a highly unique component of the macromolecule family, due to the vast
variety of configurations that can exist. Proteins exist in your cells, coordinating
11 SHR – Biology 20
operations, control your muscles, make up your
hair and fingernails and connect your bones.
The reason that they can have such diversity has
to do with their composition. Like other
macromolecules, proteins are assembled into
subunits. These subunits are known as amino
acids and are comprised of a central carbon
atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and three other
groups of atoms, an amino group (-NH2), an acid group (carboxyl - -COOH) and
an R group. The R group is one of twenty-three different potential items that distinguish
the amino acid from another. The human body can only synthesize 11 of the 23 groups.
The others must come into the human body from your diet, and are thus termed essential
amino acids.
The different amino acids of the chain repel and attract each
other, forming a coil, such as the one in the computer generated
picture to the right. This gives the protein specific
functionality and a three dimensional structure. The protein’s
solubility in water is also determined by its R group. Water
soluble R groupings, such as those within enzymes and
hemoglobin, are on the outside of the chain and are usually
electrically charged. Non-water soluble R groupings, with no
charge, alike the proteins in your fingernails, are coiled on the inside of the protein.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are the building blocks of life. Their configurations and subunits determine
the order and production of the proteins that run all bodily functions. RNA (ribonucleic
acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) are two kinds of nucleic acids. DNA contains
genes, and copies over the genes to RNA to produce proteins. Nucleotides are the
different subunits that DNA and RNA are made up of, and only four are known to exist.
Vitamins and Minerals are key components of many cell reactions, and are usually
utilized as a important tool to run cellular operations. Specifically, vitamins are organic
compounds, of which very little are needed for the body. They are coenzymes, which
help with the production of the enzymes. Vitamins also assist in keeping our skin tissue
Enzymes
Lastly on our brief biological chemistry tour, are enzymes. Enzymes act as catalysts in
chemical reactions, speeding them up thousands of times then their usual pace if
performed in a laboratory. While temperature can increase the speed of reactions in the
body (for example, the reason you get a temperature when you have the flu, is because
the body is trying to speed up all the biochemical reactions and eliminate the infection
quicker), it can also cause proteins to become denatured, or in other words lose their three
dimensional shape.
So, how do
enzymes speed
reaction times?
Well, enzymes are
made like puzzle
pieces, so that
they fit perfectly
with the specific
substrate, or
molecule that the
reaction time is
being increased. By fitting perfectly, the bonds on the substrate become weaker, and are
more easily broken, and more ready to react. Enzymes have a limited life span, and must
be synthesized by cells on occasion.
13 SHR – Biology 20
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ANATOMY
Physical Digestion
At the back of your throat there are two tubes, one is the trachea, which connects to your
lungs. The other is the esophagus, where your food is swallowed and travels down to
15 SHR – Biology 20
At its smallest point, the stomach is able to hold about 50 mL of food. After it expands, it
can hold 2-4 L of food. Amazing!
The stomach is an enclosed system, with a true sphincter muscle, known as the pyloric
sphincter located at the bottom, leading to the entrance to the small intestine. Inside the
stomach, the bolus is tossed around, via contractions and expansions about the smooth
muscle folds in the stomach, and mixed with gastric juices in order to assist in digestion.
Your stomach has three levels of production to ensure that its acidity does not erode the
stomach walls. First, the hormones that cause the secretion of gastric juices do not
activate very much until food is present. Secondly, the mucus secreted by the stomach
protects the muscle walls from being attacked by the acid. Thirdly, the stomach’s
enzyme for digestion – pepsin remains inactive until the presence of hydrochloric acid is
detected, only then does it create polypeptides which begin to digest protein prior to the
entrance into the small intestine.
The second and third regions of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum
respectively, have similar functions to the duodenum. The 2.5m jejunum contains
additional folds and more secretion glands the duodenum. The ileum, which is 3m long
contains less villi and glands, and is mainly designed to absorb the last of the available
nutrients, and push the chyme into the large intestine.
Supplementary Organs
The enzymes released from the pancreas are not activated immediately, not until a certain
enzyme is released from the hairs on the duodenum. Proteins are then digested into
smaller polypeptides, polysaccharides into simple sugars and fats into fatty acids and
other products. Pancreatic fluid also contains sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the
chyme from the stomach, returning it to a stable pH of 8, which helps to increase the
effectiveness of the other enzymes in the small intestine.
The liver is the largest organ in the adult body. One of its many purposes in the body is
to produce bile, the byproduct of destroyed red blood cells. Although the components of
the cells (known as bile pigment) are useless and are eventually excreted from the body,
the salts that is also produced in bile are hugely useful as an emulsifier – a chemical that
17 SHR – Biology 20
breaks down fat molecules into smaller molecules so that they can be more easily
absorbed into the blood stream.
The liver does not store the bile between meals. Instead, the gall bladder, which is
connected to the same duct as the liver, stores the bile and secretes it upon activation
from the duodenum hairs.
19 SHR – Biology 20
is reorganized back into triglycerides and are transported into the chest area by the
lymphatic vessels. The protein is then stripped, and the fat goes back into the
bloodstream to be circulated around the body.
Nucleic acids are digested in a very similar fashion, with nucleodiases breaking them
down into their bases, sugars and phosphates, which are moved into the bloodstream via
active transport.
The large intestine is much smaller in length then the small intestine (confusing, I know).
It is only 1.5 m long and its primary function is to ready all the leftover chyme that was
not digested for excretion. On an average day, the large intestine takes 500 mL of unused
material and squishes it down to a 150 mL waste product. The undigested chyme passes
through the colon, which removes any water that remains in the chyme so that the body
does not become dehydrated while anaerobic bacteria break down the last nutrients in the
chyme, usually generating Vitamin K and Vitamin B-12. The feces that are generated
from the leftover chymen, and pass into the rectum – the last 20 cm of the large intestine.
The rectum has three folds, one which allows it to pass gas, another which you control
when you want the rectum to empty, and the third which allows the feces to exit the body
by peristalsis, when full.
THE HEART
The heart is a key component of the circulatory system, ensuring the flow of blood
throughout the body, and also facilitating the reoxidization of blood from the respiratory
system. It also ensures that blood can only travel in one direction by putting an immense
amount of pressure on the blood, over a lifetime enough pressure is exerted to lift a
battleship through the water.
Approximately the size of two fists, the human heart is located just of to the left in the
chest. It contains four chambers, two atria (singular: atrium), on the top, which take in
oxidized blood from the lungs and deoxidized blood from elsewhere in the body, and the
ventricles in the lower portion of the heart, that take the blood from the atria and pump it
to the lungs or to the body.
The heart is made of strong cardiac muscle that involuntarily contracts rhythmically for
the duration of a
life. You cannot
consciously cease
or alter your heart
beat. In between
the left and right
atrium is a thick
muscle wall called
the septum.
The right atrium of the heart receives deoxidized blood from the body. The Superior
Vena Cava receives deoxidized blood from the lungs, chest and head area. The Inferior
Vena Cava collects blood from the lower portions of the body. All the collected blood
flows downward into the right ventricle before passing into the pulmonary trunk, and
then into the pulmonary arteries for transport to the lungs.
The Pulmonary Veins on the left side of the heart take the oxidized blood from the lungs,
and pass it through the atrium. After passing through the left ventricle, the blood is
pumped up through the largest blood vein in the body – the aorta.
21 SHR – Biology 20
The heart is made up of four
different valves, as shown on the
right. The atrium and ventricle
are separated by the
atrioventricular valves, the
bicuspid (left side) and the
tricuspid (right side. The other
valves, the pulmonary and aortic
semilunar valves permit blood
flow from either the body
(deoxidized blood) or the lungs
(oxidized blood).
Blood Vessels
The body contains three major blood vessels, one is the arteries (which carries oxygen
rich blood to the other parts of the body away from the heart). Veins carry oxygen
deprived blood back to the heart for reoxidization. Capillaries are the small blood vessels
that connect the arteries and veins, and where nutrients, minerals and wastes are
transferred into the bloodstream.
• As shown in
the diagram
on the right,
arteries are
stretchy and
expandable.
This is
especially
useful when
the heart
sends a large
jolt of blood
up against
gravity (for example to the head region). Veins are not elastic, but are brittle and
cannot be expanded. However, veins do have one way valves, to prevent blood from
flowing backwards.
• Capillaries transfer blood from the arteries to the veins. Capillaries are very small,
about ten stacked side by side (width wise) would have the diameter of a human hair.
They are small enough that
only one red blood cell can
pass through them at a time,
which helps to ensure that
nutrients and other materials
The SA Node, which is a clump of nerve endings located on the right atrium of the heart,
is referred to as the pacemaker of the heart, as its stimuli forces the heart muscle to
contract and relax rhythmically. The electric signal from the SA node results in the two
aorta contracting almost simultaneously. The signal next spreads down the heart to the
atrioventricular node which spreads the connection out to conductive Purkinje fibers,
which initiate the simultaneous contractions of the ventricles.
Blood Pressure
When the heart beats, more blood flows into the arteries, pushing up against the artery
walls and the muscles. When the ventricles in the heart contract to the maximum, it is
called systolic pressure. The lowest pressure is the diastolic pressure. Blood pressure
is measured in mmHg, or millimeters of mercury, which can be converted to kilopascals
upon desire. Blood pressure is measured as systolic pressure divided by diastolic
pressure, represented in a fraction.
Cardiac Output
Cardiac output refers to the overall ability of the heart to supply blood and oxygen to the
muscles, permitting the body to do work. It is usually in the units mL/mm (milliners per
millimeter). Cardiac output is calculated based upon the following formula:
Heart Rate
Cardiac Output =
Stroke Volume
Heart Rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute, while Stroke Volume is
the amount of blood that is pushed with each beat. Stroke volume is based upon the
amount of blood that enters the atrium, and the strength of the ventricular contractions.
23 SHR – Biology 20
dedicated to keeping the heart equipped with blood. The diagram on the left helps depict
these paths.
The below cycle chart shows an abbreviated version of oxygen movement in the body,
that you’ve learned about thus far:
Oxygen Flows
poor through
blood vena cava
returns to to right
Blood heart from atrium
travels
through Heart contracts,
the veins and blood is
back to pumped into the
right ventricle.
Heart contracts,
Blood delivers and blood is
payload of oxygen, pumped into the
and receives waste. pulmonary
arteries
Pulmonary
arteries lead to
Blood is transferred lungs
throughout the
body via the
arteries
Heart
contracts, Blood continues into
blood pulmonary veins
Heart
enters left
contracts,
ventricle
blood
enters left
atrium
Red Blood Cells or erythrocytes, carry oxygen throughout the body. The amount of
oxygen that can be moved depends on the quantity of the red blood cells, and the amount
of hemoglobin they contain. Hemoglobin, a respiratory pigment, has special properties
that allow it to pick up and transport oxygen, then release it via diffusion to the cells that
need it. There are more then 280 million hemoglobin cells in each red blood cell.
Hemoglobin also assists in the transport of waste materials. When carbon dioxide enters
the blood a portion of it is picked up by the hemoglobin.
Anemia is the condition where there is a lack of red blood cells in the body either for the
reason that there is not enough iron intake in the diet, or due to another reason. People
with anemia, may suffer from fatigue, and have pale skin.
25 SHR – Biology 20
White blood cells or Leucocytes are comprised of three main items granulocytes,
monocytes, and lymphocytes. Granulocytes consist of neutrophils, basophils, and
eosinophils, each of which is specialized. Monocytes leave the bloodstream and attack
certain bacteria. Granulocytes, like monocytes engulf and destroy foreign bodies within
the blood stream. Lymphocytes serve as antibodies who incapacitate pathogens.
Platelets
Platelets facilitate blood clotting, which prevents excessive blood loss in the event of a
breach into the blood vessels. The process for clotting to occur is as follows:
1. Blood rushes to the area of injury.
2. Platelets release series of chemicals to form enzyme thromboplastin.
3. In the prescience of calcium, a reaction with prothrombin creates thrombin.
4. Thrombin reacts with fibrinogen (another plasma protein) to produce fibrin.
Fibrin makes an insoluble material that is insoluble. This is the “scab” of your wound.
Blood’s Functions
Blood has many functions. One of the functions, as we’ve learned, is transport. Blood
transports nutrients absorbed in the capillaries of the digestive tract, as well as nutrients
that are synthesized in other areas. Blood also takes gasses from the respiratory system.
Blood also works to transport waste materials from the cells, such as uric acid and carbon
dioxide. The bloodstream also transports hormones, chemical messages that instruct the
body to do certain things.
Countercurrent is the principal that makes this system of regulation possible. As warmer
blood flows from the core of the body, it flows along a deep artery, that runs deep inside
Capillaries are very important to blood circulation because they provide the only
apparatus where exchange of materials in blood can take place. Capillaries exist near
most cells and in high concentrations in the lungs to facilitate the exchange of materials.
Within the capillaries, exchange of materials takes place via the concentration gradient.
For example, if the blood is deoxidized, the concentration gradient will automatically
result in the diffusion of oxygen into the blood stream. The need of hemoglobin to have
oxygen also contributes to this movement. It also works the same way with the giving of
waste products. Blood pressure becomes lower then that of the arteries in the capillary
beds, and is lower yet still in the veins, in order to facilitate blood flowing through the
capillaries, which it does at a slower rate of speed then its speed through the veins.
Blood Disorders
27 SHR – Biology 20
Some major diseases of the blood include hemophilia, which is a lack of clotting platelets
in the blood. People who suffer from severe hemophilia are in danger of bleeding to
death, and are treated with a substance called Factor VIII, which stimulates the blood to
produce more platelets.
Leukemia is cancer of the white blood cells. Mytoid leukemia is the prescience of too
many leukocytes, which are too immature to fight infections and crowd out the red blood
cells. Lymphoid leukemia is a cancer of the lymphocytes. Treatment of leukemia
requires the transfusion of new red blood cells into the affected persons body, and new,
healthy white blood cells, as well as radiation therapy.
The body is an excellent growing place for many pathogens and other bacteria. The body
defends itself by either refusing their entry, or attacking them inside. There are three
methods of defense the body employs:
The first is a physical barrier provided by the skin to stop entry of pathogens. The oil in
the skin, and the acidity of sweat all are hostile to the life and reproduction of bacteria
and pathogens.
Cell Mediated Immunity is created by three types of white blood cells, and is the second
level of defense. Macrophages, neutrophills and monocytes all work together to destroy
pathogens. The later two utilize phagocytosis, swallowing the offending pathogens
whole. Macrophages use phagocytosis, and swallow cells that have already been infected
with pathogens, or with cancer.
Specific Anti-Body Mediated Immunity, uses specific protein antibodies that are created
either through exposure to the pathogen previously, or through genetic makeup in order
to help rid the body of the infection. Lymphocytes are the active portion of the white
blood cells that participate in the removal of diseases and are divided into B and T cells,
How do these cells know what to attack? Your body has a catalogue of what should be
inside of it, and these cells have access to that catalogue. In addition, antigens, special
receptor cells on the edges of pathogens are specific to the antibody attacking. The
antibody enzyme latches directly onto the antigen.
B Cells function to create the specific antibodies required to thwart off the infection. The
B cells split into memory B cells, and plasma cells. The plasma cells pump out massive
amounts of antibodies to fight the infection, while the memory B cells wait into the blood
stream to produce more plasma cells should a second wave of the pathogen become
present after all the plasma cells and antibodies have been used up.
T Cells facilitate the removal of macrophages which have become infected after
destroying part of the pathogen. Helper T Cells recognize the presence of the antigen on
the macrophage cells, and stimulate chemically the Killer T Cells, which puncture a hole
in the cell membrane of the macrophage, destroying the infected cell. Supporter T Cells
29 SHR – Biology 20
ensure that regular tissue is not destroyed by the Killer T Cells. Memory T Cells send
new chemical signals if all the other T Cells have been used up and the pathogen remains.
Blood Types
Blood
transfusions in
early days
were very
unsuccessful,
because
scientists did
not know that
specific blood
types carry
different
antigens to
blood
receptors.
The
prescience of
the type A or
type B
antigens on
the surface of
the person’s
blood cells
determines the
type of blood
they have.
The presence
of Type A
antigens
means you
have type A
Blood, alike
type B.
Rheumatoid arthritis is the killer T Cells attacking the joints of the body, causing server
damage, inflammation of the joints and a lot of pain for the individual. Drugs such as
Tylinol can be taken to reduce the pain, and more severe disease modifying
antiartheumatic drugs slow the overall progress of the system.
Asthma, a chronic condition in North America, occurs when the bronchitis of the lungs
become overly sensitive, and trigger massive spasms or coughing fits. Stimuli can be
extremely simple, such as the inhaling of cold air, or the prescience of certain pollens.
Asthma can be treated by anti-inflammatory drugs, which ease the suffering of the
bronchitis openings.
Delayed response to allergies is caused due to the creation of helper T cells, which take
some time to create. These allergies can occur to the prescience of jewelry or certain
cosmetics.
31 SHR – Biology 20
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Cellular respiration is the main function of the human respiratory system and ensures that
we, as humans are able to take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide. There are two main
requirements for respiration to take place:
1. Respiration must have enough surface area to take place at a speed to meet the body’s
needs.
2. Respiration must take place in a moist environment.
Thin bones protect the back of the nose, turbinate, which increase the surface area for the
cilia to be attached to. The heat from the blood in the nose and the mucus also serve to
warm the air, and moisten it. The air must be warmed and moistened in order to protect
the delicate structures of the respiratory system.
The pharynx or the throat is the passageway air follows down to the lungs. The epiglottis
is a thing flap of membrane that ensures that food and other particles that are going to the
digestive tract do not go down the tube in to the lungs. The epiglottis does this by closing
over the trachea, or the glottis, which is the windpipe. Food thus goes down the
esophagus and into the stomach instead of into the lungs.
After passing the larynx, the air passes down the trachea, which is structured by strong
semi lunar rings of cartilage. The open portion of the trachea faces the esophagus so that
the former can contract, permitting the later to expand when food is swallowed.
The trachea branches into two smaller pathways, the bronchi. The bronchi enter the left
and right lungs, and have C-shaped cartilage rings, like the trachea, that provide support
and stability to the lungs. The bronchi divide into bronchioles, tinier tubes. Both the
bronchi and bronchioles contain cilia, tiny hairs that sweep the air through the respiratory
tract, and also clean it.
The lungs are surrounded by a double layer of membrane, known as the pleural
membrane. The outside of the membrane is stuck to the chest wall, while the inter
portion of the membrane attachés to the lungs. Fluid fills the space in between the
membranes. This allows the lungs and chest to expand and contract uniformity, without
causing tearing or friction between the membranes.
At the end of each bronchiole are tiny sacs known as alveoli. This is where the actual gas
exchange takes place. The wall of the alveoli, known as the alveoli wall, is filled with
tiny capillaries, which connect the veins and arteries of the body togther. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide can diffuse into the bloodstream directly through these capillaries.
The arrangement of bronchioles and alveoli is kept relatively constant with elastic
connective tissue between them. Lubricating film is also used to keep the alveoli from
collapsing or from sticking together.
33 SHR – Biology 20
BREATHING AND RESPIRATION
In order to regulate air pressure and breathing, two different muscles are used. The
diaphragm is a dome shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal
cavity. The rib muscles exist between the ribs and extend down to the diaphragm.
Respiratory Volume
After being exchanged here, the oxygen is transported to the cells, where it is again
exchanged for carbon dioxide, which is brought back to the capillaries and the alveoli.
Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, is carried through a variety of methods. 23% is
carried by the hemoglobin, 7 percent is carried by the blood plasma. The other 70% is
carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). When carbon dioxide and water react, they form
carbonic acid, H2CO3. As the carbonic acid enters the blood stream, a hydrogen atom
disassociates from the carbonic acid and is absorbed into the hemoglobin. The
bicarbonate diffuses into the plasma, and is carried to the lungs where this process is
reversed, and the carbon dioxide diffuses through the capillaries into the alveoli and out
of the respiratory system.
RESPIRATORY HEALTH
Briefly, are a couple ailments that can affect the respiratory system. Recall that the
respiratory system, like the digestion system, exists in coordination with the external
environment and are therefore susceptible to a number of ailments.
35 SHR – Biology 20
Upper Respiratory Ailments
• Tonsillitis is the viral or bacterial infection of the tonsils (located in the back of the
pharynx. They can be removed surgically if breathing becomes impaired, or if they
become super prone to infection.
• Laryngitis is the viral or bacterial infection of the larynx (vocal cords). Usually this
results in the cords being unable to vibrate normally, causing speech to be difficult,
and the throat to be sore.
There are three different methods that organisms can utilize for cellular respiration, some
of which have the same steps involved. Organisms that utilize oxygen, known as oxic
organisms, use aerobic cellular respiration while organisms where oxygen is not
required use anaerobic cellular respiration. The third process, for releasing energy
from food sources is called fermentation. Yeast, and the bacteria that sours milk, are
two examples of fermentation.
Aerobic Cellular Respiration has the ultimate goal of transforming the high energy
elections from the glucose to a carrier oxygen molecule. It does this through four distinct
processes, which shall be summarized here and then further explained in the next bit.
Glycolosis does not require oxygen to commence (it is actually an anaerobic process, so
both aerobic and anaerobic organisms perform it). Glycolosis is the chemical breakdown
of glucose into two three-carbon pyruvate ions. Glycolosis generates a small amount of
ATP, the energy source utilized by bodily cells. In anaerobic organisms, the leftover
pyruvate from glycolosis proceeds to fermentation.
In aerobic organisms, the next step from glycolosis is an entrance into the Krebs cycle,
through the loss of a carbon atom, which bonds with an O2 molecule to form carbon
dioxide. It also loses a hydrogen atom, and gives it to NAD+, which become NADH, a
transport molecule. The loss of the carbon ion permits the pyruvate to bond with
Coenzyme A and enter into the Krebs cycle via NADH.
Within the Krebs cycle is to transform the power of the carbon atoms into power
chemicals NADH and FADH2. Finally, the Krebs cycle provides high energy elections
for the Election Transport System, which generates a high volume of ATP.
37 SHR – Biology 20
Step 1: Glycolosis
Pyruvate undergoes one additional reaction before entering the Krebs cycle. Pyruvate
loses a carbon atom and a hydrogen atom. The carbon atom leads to bonding with an
oxygen molecule, forming carbon dioxide, which is then expelled as waste. The
hydrogen bonds with a NAD+ to form NADH. Coenzyme A and pyruvate form acetyl
CoA, which then enters the Krebs cycle.
Oxygen’s Importance
Remember that oxygen is the key component of aerobic respiration. Even in such a small
capacity, being the last election
receptor, the election transport
system, and subsequently the
Krebs cycle could not take place
without it.
39 SHR – Biology 20
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Anaerobic Respiration works virtually the same as aerobic respiration, except that it does
not include the Krebs cycle, and uses a different receptor then oxygen at the end of the
election transport cycle. For this reason, it is highly inefficient, and only produces 2 ATP
molecules, due to gylcolosis.
FERMENTATION
For organisms that cannot take in oxygen, or for tissues in the human body where oxygen
is not present in large enough quantities, fermentation takes place. Fermentation includes
glycolosis and two reactions that reduce NADH to NAD+ by reducing pyruvate to other
compounds.
There are two types of fermentation. Lactic fermentation and ethanol fermentation.
Lactic Fermentation
Ethanol Fermentation
The reaction itself may seem simple, but for the arrow to go from carbon dioxide and
water to glucose and oxygen, requires over 100 distinct reactions. Overall, these
reactions can be classified into two categories. In Light-Dependent Reactions, solar
energy is trapped and used to produce ATP and NADPH. In Light Independent
Reactions ATP and NADPH are used to reduce carbon dioxide to glucose.
41 SHR – Biology 20
The Light-Dependent Reactions of photosynthesis result in different pigments within the
plant absorbing different wavelengths of light.
When an ample amount of NADPH and ATP occur in the stomata and the chloroplasts,
the energy goes through the Calvin-Benson cycle to form glucose. The Calvin-Benson
cycle can be summarized as follows:
The first stage is to fix carbon dioxide, where the carbon from the carbon dioxide is
bonded to another molecule in the stomata called ribulose bisphosphate. The resulting
six-carbon compound immediately breaks down into two three carbon compounds
The Calvin-Benson cycle must be completed six times in order to synthesize one
molecule of glucose. Of the 12 PGAL molecules created during six cycles, 10 are used to
reproduce ribulose bisphosphate and two are glucose.
43 SHR – Biology 20
MUSCLE CONTROL
The muscle cells work to convert chemical energy from cellular respiration to kinetic
energy, the energy of motion. There are three different types of muscle cells.
Smooth Muscle Cells are long and tapered at each end. Their contractions are
involuntary; you cannot control your smooth muscles. They are found in the stomach,
many blood vessels, and in the iris of the eye. In each location, smooth muscle is
responsible for controlling the shape and size of the muscles. Although contractions of
the smooth muscle are slower then those of the skeletal muscle (see below), smooth
muscle can contract for much longer without fatiguing.
Cardiac Muscles are unique to the heart. They are tubular and strained and only have
one nucleus throughout. Contractions are involuntary.
Skeletal Muscles are what we think of when one says muscles. They control the
movement of the human body, and are voluntarily moved. With over six hundred
throughout the human body, skeletal muscles can produce a wide variety of movements.
Multiple nuclei control the large and long series of a muscle and a great amount of energy
are needed to run skeletal muscles.
Each muscle in
the body lies
along a bone,
with two thick
tendons on
either end
connecting the
muscle to
different bones.
Muscle fibers,
the main portion
of the skeletal
muscle, are
organized into
many bundles, with layers of connective tissue wrapping around them, and with
connective tissue wrapping around the other connective tissue, an then a protective layer
wrapping around the muscle itself. Blood vessels run between the fibers of the muscles,
45 SHR – Biology 20
providing power and oxygen for the muscles, and taking the carbon dioxide away.
Nerves near to the blood vessels trigger contractions.
Most of the volume of the muscle fiber comes from the myofibrils, and the thinner
myofilaments. The rest of the volume consists of mitochondria. The below table
summarizes the muscle tissue.
Skeletal muscle contraction is due to the efforts of two myrofibrils, actin and myosin.
Actin is a thin filament with two strands of protein intertwined that looks alike two sets of
balls strung together and wrapped around one another. Myosin is two thin tubes twisted
together, and at the end it has a head like protrusion extending from either tube.
The Z line is an anchor to each myrofilament, and as the myosin pulls the actin along, the
z line anchor is pulled too, contracting the whole muscle uniformly.
47 SHR – Biology 20
Calcium ions (Ca++) regulate the muscle contractions. Binding of the myosin heads to the
actin myrofilamnets cannot take place without a high amount of calcium, because without
it tropomyosin forms – a natural inhibitor for the chemical bonds that need to take place
in order for contraction to occur. The complex of tropomyosin shifts away from the areas
where the bonding sites are located in the presence of high calcium intake.
ATP is acquired through three methods, creatine phosphate breakdown, aerobic cellular
respiration and fermentation. The first and third methods can be completed without
oxygen, while aerobic cellular respiration requires oxygen to take place.
Aerobic cellular respiration can occur when the delivery of oxygen commences to the
muscle cells, but also when oxygen is stored in the myoglobin, a compound alike
hemoglobin that is synthesized in the muscle cells. Glycogen and
fats can also be stored in the muscles, and therefore fibers can use
glucose and fatty acids from the stores to produce ATP.
Muscle Twitch
49 SHR – Biology 20
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The excretory system seeks to maintain the volume and composition of the various fluids
within the body. Waste within the human body is any substance that is produced within
the body in excess, for example sodium (Na+) ions, chloride (Cl-) ions and hydrogen ions
(H+). Wastes, in large quantities can post a risk to human health, particularly those types
of waste that have an extreme pH (either highly acidic or highly basic).
The excretion system is the apparatus which removes these wastes from the body. It
works to separate them from the bodily fluids, package them appropriately for removal,
and then secrete them back into the external environment.
The Kidney
The kidney
begins with a
flap of tissue
that leads to the
renal pelvis, an
apparatus with
cap like
extensions that
receives urine
from the renal
tissue. This
tissue is divided
into two
sections, the
renal cortex and the inner renal medulla.
3. The final Duct. The Loop of Henle empties into a duct known as the collecting duct.
The duct serves to collect the water that was not already reabsorbed into the body.
The fluid that is left is now called urine.
51 SHR – Biology 20
URINE PRODUCTION
Two factors contribute to the forced filtration (glomerular) are the permeability of the
membranes: their size and shape ensure that only desired particles can get through them
back into the bloodstream. The second factor is blood pressure. The pressure within the
glumeulus is about four times higher then the other locations in the body, leading to the
forced filtration.
Proximinal Tubule
Loop of Henle
The Loop of Henle is responsible for the reabsorption of water and other ions from
glomerular filtrate. As the loop of Henle swirls down towards the lower medulla region,
the saltiness of the external environment increases, and the water simply diffuses (via
As the filtrate reaches the highest thickest point of the loop of Henle, the ions are
remove3d via active transport.
The transport of ions out of the loop of Henle helps to replenish the salty environment in
the medulla, ensuring that the water can be reabsorbed. It also reduces the concentration
of the filtrate.
Distill Tubule
Collecting Duct
53 SHR – Biology 20
person, the concentration of the ions and the saltiness of the surrounding deep medulla
that the collecting duct is held in, increases or decreases to proportionally increase or
decrease the amount of reabsorpiton and collection of water via osmosis.
Summary
What is left is a filtrate that is about 1% of its original volume, and is now called urine.
The below table summarizes the different portions of the nephron.
The Kidney’s maintain the excretory system by controlling the amount of water that is
absorbed. Osmotic pressure refers to the force generated by water in the concentration
gradient. The kidneys ensure that enough water gets into the body systems by regulating
the osmotic pressure. When you are water deficient, osmoreceptors within your brain
become aware of the situation and send ADH (antidiuretic hormones) through the
bloodstream to the kidney, where the permeability of the distill tubule and the collecting
duct is increased, permitting increased water retention. It also works in reverse, with a
reduction in the production and release of ADH.
Salt Reabsorption
The hormone aldostone regulates the kidneys in such a way to control the reabsorption of
Na+ ions by stimulating the distill tubule and the collecting duct to retain more sodium
ions.
Maintaining Blood pH
55 SHR – Biology 20
Renal Insufficiency
Renal insufficiency means that the kidneys cannot sustain balance in the body due to
damage to their nephrons. Some causes of nephron damage are:
• kidney infection
• high blood pressure
• diabetes mellitus
• trauma from a blow to the lower back or constant vibration from machinery
• poisoning (either from skin contact, inhalation of fumes, or ingestion of contaminated
food) by heavy metals such as mercury and lead or solvents such as paint thinners
• atherosclerosis (which reduces blood flow to the kidneys)
• blockage of the tubules
Kidneys can work with severe problems. 75% of the nephrons need to be seriously
damaged before homeostasis cannot take place, and a person must go on the blood
cleansing process dialysis.
Dialysis
Organisms utilize the transfer of energy to remain alive. While most organisms utilize
cellular respiration in order to release energy. The release of carbohydrates occurs
within the cellular structure of animals, plants and humans which allows us to remain
alive. The chemical equation for cellular respiration is as follows:
Some types of organisms, such as plants, algae and some bacteria can utilize the sun’s
energy in a process known as photosynthesis in order to create the energy required to
live. The equation for photosynthesis is:
Approximately 19 percent of the energy is absorbed by gasses and liquids, such as water
vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Some of this energy heats the atmosphere,
and some radiates back into space.
57 SHR – Biology 20
The other 51 percent of the energy reaches the surface, warming the land and the water
on earth. Some is absorbed, and other soaks back into the atmosphere and back into
space.
Only about one or two percent overall actually reaches the producers on the ground.
However, the impact of this small percentage is highly significant. Producers create over
150 billion tons of matter each year. This matter sustains the rest of the life on earth.
Chemosynthesis does not only occur underwater. In the soil that we tread on, lives a
similar type of bacteria that converts the ammonia to a nitrogen based compound. This
type of bacteria is called nitrifying bacteria.
Consumers
We know that only producers can produce energy for themselves through the sun.
Consumers are creatures that eat other creatures in order to gain energy for themselves to
live. Primary consumers are usually
herbivores, because they are the first eaters
of plants. Secondary consumers are
carnivores which usually eat herbivores.
Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat
herbivores and other carnivores.
Earth is a closed system, which does not permit matter to enter or leave it. Due to the
process outlined above, our Earth’s natural biosphere ensures that matter is recycled so
that it can be reused infinite times. While matter is recyclable, energy is not. Energy
enters the biosphere on a one way path only.
Recall the first law of thermodynamics from your previous studies “Energy cannot be
created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another or transferred
from one object to another.” Energy entering the biosphere is utilized by organisms in
order to perform work. The energy that is used does not “disappear”, but is simply
converted into another form of energy and transferred from one object to another (for
example, energy is transferred from a creature as it moves across the land to the land).
However, this conversion process is not 100% effective. Some energy is always lost in
the environment. For example, when you drive in an automobile, energy is transferred
from the fuel into the kinetic energy to move the vehicle, sound energy from the engine
and some thermal (heat) energy that is lost randomly into the environment. This relates
to the second law of thermodynamics which is “With the conversion of energy, there is
always less energy left available for useful work”.
The second law of thermodynamics also relates to cells. Cells require energy constantly
to continue their operations. With the loss of available energy, the cells cannot continue
their operations, and cease to life (they die). That is why producers are so important to the
biosphere, because they are able to produce the energy that other organisms cells need to
survive.
59 SHR – Biology 20
ecosystem is an intensely complicated transfer energy transfer mechanism.
Understanding this transfer is a major component of ecology.
Relationships between organisms that consume one another for energy are described as
tropics. The flow chart (left) demonstrates these relationships.
Tropic levels identity organisms on the basis of how they get the food they need to eat.
We’ve already learned the classification of “herbivore” and “carnivore”. The flowchart
also shows the classifications of “primary consumer”, “secondary consumer” and so on.
However, Tropic levels introduce a new element into the equation. They also explain the
energy that is transferred throughout the ecosystem.
The first tropic is given to creatures who create the chemical energy in order to feed all
other tropic levels. All higher levels consist of organisms that feed on each tropic below
them. Decomposers can feed on any tropic level.
Food webs can only extend through so many tropics, due to the second law of
thermodynamics. Loss of energy in each tropic ranges between 80-90 percent. (In other
words, when energy is transferred from one tropic to another through the consumption of
an organism, only 10-20% of the energy within the organism is actually transferred).
Ecologists refer to the “Rule of 10” which states that, for general use, only 10% of energy
is transferred in the tropics.
Biomass Pyramids
Biomass is the measure of dry mass (usually in g/m2) that an organism or group of
organisms have. Biomass has also been worked into the structure of the Eltonian
pyramid to properly identify the differences in mass between the organisms of each tropic
level. Hence, a Biomass pyramid is a structure that incorporates the tropic levels, and
also gives estimations on the total biomass of each tropic. A biomass pyramid is pictured
below:
61 SHR – Biology 20
CYCLES OF MATTER
On a hot day, the human body perspires in order to cool itself. The water that is created
through the bodies pores is cycled back into the environment, either through evaporation
off the skin or by run off into a water culvert. Consider where the water may go when it
has reentered the biosphere. Perhaps it went into the atmosphere, and rained down during
a storm? Perhaps after this storm it ran off into the drinking water system that we use.
Consider where the water that you release today goes in the environment. The cycle that
water and other chemicals take through the biotic and abiotic components of the
environment is called the biogeochemical cycle. This section will instruct you on
various cycles in the ecosystem.
The hydrological
cycle is the
scientific name for
the water cycle,
which deals with all
phases that water on
earth goes through.
The hydrologic
cycle helps to
connect ecosystems
across vast
distances on the
earth.
Approximately 97% of water in the biosphere exists in liquid form, due to water’s
relatively high boiling point. Water vapor exists in the atmosphere, primarily due to
evaporation. Water vapor is also a greenhouse gas, and remains in the atmosphere; as it
rises it moves towards the poles and distributes heat away from the equator.
Liquid water, in the seas also works to spread out the heat evenly throughout its body.
Warmer water can also heat the air, and moderate the temperature of nearby landforms.
Specific reasons water can transfer thermal energy, and dissolved minerals are:
• Water is a universal solvent.
• Water has a relatively high boiling point and melting point.
• Water has special adhesive and cohesive properties.
• Water has a high heat capacity.
The hydrogen bond itself is very weak. When water is in a substance form, individual
hydrogen bonds between molecules break and reform rapidly. However, when the
number of molecules of water and the number of hydrogen bonds formed increases, he
overall strength of the substance increases rapidly. Because the bonds can break and
reform rapidly, water cannot boil until all the bonds have been broken. This unique
property of the hydrogen bond helps us to explain why waters boiling point is so high
when compared to other substances which do not
form hydrogen bonds.
Water’s point of maximum density is 4ºC. When water is melting, it heats up and slowly
becomes denser until it reaches this temperature. When it hits four degrees, the warmer
water sinks below, and cooler water from above is heated. Subsequently, the opposite
process occurs when water freezes, with cooler water sinking as it becomes less dense.
Water has interesting and positive consequences to organisms within the ecosystems. As
water rises and sinks, it cycles dissolved nutrients and oxygen through it. Water that
penetrates around rocks and other solid landforms, and then freezes weathers the
landforms releasing sediment, sand and other dissolved nutrients for use within the
ecosystem. In addition because solid water is less dense, it can freeze overtop of liquid
63 SHR – Biology 20
water, insulating it and preventing aquatic life from freezing or being frozen into a solid
form.
Cohesion is another unique property related to water’s hydrogen bond. Cohesion keeps
water molecules tense and stuck together, and permits many small insects to “walk on
water”. It also forces debris and other nutrients to the surface, permitting easier access to
them by aquatic creatures.
Water also has a high heat capacity. This means that water requires a relatively large
amount of energy to change its temperature, when compared to other substances. On a
organism level, this permits organisms with a higher water level in their bodies to
maintain a more moderate, constant, internal temperature. In a larger scale, water bodies
help regulate and moderate temperatures of the land masses they are adjacent. Water also
permits surface currents to distribute heat from the warm equator region to heat higher
latitudes.
Uses of Water
Living organisms depend on water and the hydrologic cycle daily. More then 50% of all
animal and plant tissue is comprised of water. 70% of the adult human is water, while
95% of the radish, a plant, is comprised of water. Water loss and gain, are parts of daily
life for many of earth’s organisms.
Consider the relation between autotrophs (organisms that create their own food) and
heteotrophs (organisms that consume autotrophs). Could the former survive without the
later? The answer is no, because heterotrophs provide nutrients required in order for
autotrophs to make food.
Plants consume
tones of carbon
dioxide (CO2)
each year. The
overall amount of
consumption of
CO2 far exceeds
its secretion from
animals through
cellular
respiration. A
great percentage
of carbon dioxide
is secreted by
forest fires, and by the natural processes of decomposers, in addition to the secretions of
human industrial and personal waste. Plants and animals also play key roles in the rapid
cycling of oxygen, via the photosynthesis process.
65 SHR – Biology 20
Trees act as carbon sinks, taking in massive
amounts of carbon yearly, and storing it
within their trunks until they die, decompose
or are exterminated by a forest fire.
The ocean contains approximately 38000 Gt of carbon in the form of dissolved carbon
dioxide. A further 11000 Gt of carbon lies on the ocean floor in the form of methane
gas. Limestone rock also contains carbon, and as it is weathered small amounts are
eroded off into the atmosphere. Humans also have influences on the carbon-air content.
For example, during the Industrial Revolution, carbon in the air increased by 30%.
The nitrogen cycle is essential to many organisms. However, many cannot use nitrogen
in its pure form and convert it to ammonia (ammonization). Ammonium is also
produced during decomposition (ammonification). Denitification is converting the
nitrogen or nitrate back into nitrogen gas.
Phosphorous does not cycle through the atmosphere. Instead, it is found within soil and
water, and weathering gradually releases it from rocks. Animals obtain it from
consuming milk, grain and meat. Scarcity of phosphorous helps to control crops, as it is
a requirement to survive. Algae blooms result in a high amount of organic matter in
aquatic regions – something that kills off fish and other specifies due to the loss of
oxygen. Phosphorous was discovered to be the key link causing the algae blooms, and
since that time laundry detergents and dish soaps have had their phosphorous removed to
prevent such happenings in future.
Final Notes
• Productivity is the rate at which an ecosystem’s producers capture and store energy
within organic compounds over a certain length of time.
• Stromatolites are rocks that have accumulated sediment minerals over time.
67 SHR – Biology 20
•