How

sound travels through air

A vibra(ng object produces a sound wave The object pushes the air molecules surrounding it causing a compression The object moves back crea(ng a rarefac(on When the object returns and pushes again causing a second compression e.t.c

Describing sound
Sounds dier in
Loudness/Intensity (amplitude of the wave) Pitch (frequency of the wave)

Decibels
Waves transport energy away from a source Intensity: the source energy per second arriving at unit area, with the area perpendicular to the direc(on of propaga(on of the sound wave P P = power = total energy I= -1 m-2 (or W m-2) emiOed per second Units: J s 4 r 2 The human ear is sensi(ve to sound intensi(es from 10-12 to 1 W m-2

Decibels
Waves transport energy away from a source Intensity: the source energy per second arriving at unit area, with the area perpendicular to the direc(on of propaga(on of the sound wave
Units: J s-1 m-2 (or W m-2)

The human ear is sensi(ve to sound intensi(es from 10-12 to 1 W m-2 !I$ Intensity Level: IL = log10 # & " I0 %
where I0 is the minimum detectable intensity = 10-12 Wm-2 Unit: B (Bel) = 10 dB (decibel) (logarithmic scale)

Ultrasonics
Sound waves with frequency > 20k Hz are called ultrasonics They are inaudible to the human ear Uses:
average speed of sound in water: 1500 meters per second Echo Time x Speed of Sound = Depth 2

Depth sounding

Ultrasonics
Sound waves with frequency > 20k Hz are called ultrasonics They are inaudible to the human ear Uses:

Depth sounding

Industrial cleaning

Ultrasonic imaging

Properties of Sound Waves

Obey all proper(es of waves except polariza(on Reec3on: sound waves bounce o obstacles, echoes Refrac3on: speed of sound waves depends on temperature

Properties of Sound Waves

Obey all proper(es of waves except polariza(on Reec3on: sound waves bounce o obstacles, echoes Refrac3on: speed of sound waves depends on temperature Dirac3on: sound waves bend around corners

Properties of Sound Waves

Obey all proper(es of waves except polariza(on Reec3on: sound waves bounce o obstacles, echoes Refrac3on: speed of sound waves depends on temperature Dirac3on: sound waves bend around corners Interference: coherent sound waves travelling in the same

medium will interfere with each other

Properties of Sound Waves

Obey all proper(es of waves except polariza(on Reec3on: sound waves bounce o obstacles, echoes Refrac3on: speed of sound waves depends on temperature Dirac3on: sound waves bend around corners Interference: coherent sound waves travelling in the same

medium will interfere with each other

Beats: periodic uctua(ons in the intensity of sound when two

sound waves of similar frequencies interfere with one another

Beat frequency formula

Two waves of frequencies f1 and f2 (where f1 > f2) Time between two successive beats = t (seconds) In (me t:
wave 1 emits f1 t cycles wave 2 emits f2 t cycles

Dierence between number of cycles between two beats = f1 t f2 t = 1 cycle t = 1 / (f1 f2) = beat period Beat frequency fB= 1 / t = f1 f2

t = (me between two successive beats

Example
A sound wave oscillates at 445 Hz and is joined by another sound wave which oscillates at 450 Hz. What is the beat frequency of the resultant sound wave and what is the beat period?

Fundamental resonance (closed pipe)

Resonance occurs when a material vibrates with high amplitude at a specic frequency
Closed pipe

= 4L L =
Node An(-node

c c f= = 4L
Where c is the speed of sound in air

Fundamental frequency:

f0 =

c c = 4L

Overtones (closed pipe)

Resonance occurs when a material vibrates with high amplitude at a specic frequency
Closed pipe

f0 =
Node An(-node

c c = 4L

3 4 L= = L 4 3
Node An(-node Node An(-node First Overtone (or Third Harmonic):

c 3c f1 = = = 3 f0 4L

Closed pipes only give odd-numbered harmonics. Overtone resonances occur at f0,3f0,5f0 etc.

Fundamental resonance (open pipe)

Resonance occurs when a material vibrates with high amplitude at a specic frequency
Open pipe

= 2L L =
An(-node Node An(-node

Fundamental frequency:

f0 =

c c = 2L

Overtones (open pipe)

Resonance occurs when a material vibrates with high amplitude at a specic frequency
Open pipe

f0 =
An(-node Node An(-node

c c = 2L

L=
An(-node Node An(-node Node An(-node First Overtone (or Second Harmonic):

c c f1 = = = 2 f0 L

Overtone resonances occur at 2f0,3f0,4f0 etc. Open pipes allow all harmonics.

End correction
In prac(ce, the an(nodes do not occur at the exact loca(on of the open end of a pipe, but a liOle bit further out into the air This extra distance e is known as the end-correc3on
Closed pipe e Node Open pipe e An(-node e An(-node An(-node

= 4(L + e) c c f0 = = 4(L + e)

= 2(L + 2e)
c c f0 = = 2(L + 2e)

Node

Question
Why does a ute play a higher note than a clarinet when both instruments have about the same length?

Flute

Clarinet

Example
A cylindrical pipe of length 28cm is closed at one end and is found to be at resonance when a tuning fork of frequency 864 Hz is sounding near the open end. Determine: a) The overtone the pipe is vibra(ng at b) The value of the end correc(on (Assume speed of sound in air = 340 m/s)

Vibrations of Strings
When a string vibrates, progressive transverse waves travel to both ends and get reected forming a sta(onary wave Surrounding air vibrates with the frequency of the string
L

L= 2
L=

2 L= 3

c c = 2L c c f1 = = = 2 f0 L c 3c f2 = = = 3 f0 2L f0 =

The fundamental frequency gives the string its pitch

Factors affecting f0 of strings

We can aect the the fundamental frequency by changing any of the following:
The length of the string, L The tension of the string, T The mass (per unit length) of the string, (also called the linear density)

Speed of propaga(on of sound wave in a string:

c=

Fundamental frequency:

f0 =

c 1 T = 2L 2L

Example
A steel wire hangs ver(cally from a point suppor(ng a weight of 80N at its lower end. The length of the wire from the xed point to the weight is 1.5m. Given the density of steel is 7800 kg/m3 , calculate the fundamental frequency emiOed by the wire when it is plucked, if its diameter is 0.5mm.

Speed of sound in air

Speed of a sound wave, c, depends on the material it is travelling through In general csolids > cliquids > cgases The speed of sound in air depends on the temperature of the air The value most commonly used is 340 m/s, which is the speed at 15C The speed of sound, c, in air at dierent temperatures T (C) is approximately given by

c = 331.4 + 0.6T

m/s

The Doppler Effect

The change in frequency of a wave when the source is moving rela(ve to an observer Sta(onary source, sta(onary observer: = c

fs

The Doppler Effect (source moving)

The change in frequency of a wave when the source is moving rela(ve to an observer Source moving towards observer with constant speed
c vs fs Apparent frequency fo = c fs c vs
Apparent wavelength o =

Observer

The Doppler Effect (source moving)

The change in frequency of a wave when the source is moving rela(ve to an observer Source moving away from observer with constant speed
c + vs fs Apparent frequency fo = c fs c + vs
Apparent wavelength o =

Observer

The Doppler Effect (observer moving)

The change in frequency of a wave when the source is moving rela(ve to an observer Source sta(onary, observer moving towards it
Wavelength (unchanged)

c fs

Apparent frequency

fo =

c + vo fs c

The Doppler Effect (observer moving)

The change in frequency of a wave when the source is moving rela(ve to an observer Source sta(onary, observer moving away from it
Wavelength (unchanged)

c fs

Apparent frequency

fo =

c vo fs c

The Doppler Effect (source + observer moving)

Mo(on of source aects the apparent wavelength Mo(on of observer aects the rela5ve speed of waves Observer and source approaching each other:
s Apparent wavelength o = fs Speed of waves rela(ve to observer co = c + vo

cv

Apparent frequency fo =

co c + vo = fs o c vs

The Doppler Effect (source + observer moving)

Mo(on of source aects the apparent wavelength Mo(on of observer aects the rela5ve speed of waves Observer and source moving away from each other:
s Apparent wavelength o = fs Speed of waves rela(ve to observer co = c vo

c+v

Apparent frequency fo =

co c vo = fs o c + vs

Example
A car sounding a horn which produces a note with a frequency of 500 Hz approaches and then drives past a sta(onary observer. The speed of the car is a steady 72 km/h. What is the frequency dierence between the two notes heard by the observer? (Assume speed of sound = 340 m/s)

To Do
Read sec(on 17 from the book [p.320-p.338 Sound] Assignment wk8: Prac3cal this Friday!
Where? Physics labs (G.O. Jones 2nd oor) When? .. (make sure you go at the right (me)

Hand it in no later than 4:00pm next Wednesday - LATE WORK WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED