Ecology and Evolutionary

Biology

„ Events that occur in ecological time affect

life on the scale of evolutionary time
Chapter 50 „ The environment is constantly weeding out
less fit individuals
An Introduction to Ecology and the „ As the environment changes, so do the
Biosphere populations of organisms

Organisms and the

The Scope of Ecology
Environment
„ Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions „ The environment of any
interactions determine distribution of organisms organism includes:
and their abundance – Abiotic, or nonliving,
components
„ Ecology reveals the richness of the biosphere
– Biotic, or living, components
between organisms and the environment
• All the organisms that are
– Early science was basically ecology part of the individual’
individual’s
– New methods and computers have made ecology one of environment are collectively
the more rigorous and robust sciences called the biota
• Environmental components
affect the distribution and
abundance of organisms

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 Subfields of Ecology Community Ecology
„ Organismal ecology studies how an „ Community ecology deals with the whole
organism’
organism’s structure, physiology, and (for array of interacting species in a community
animals) behavior meet environmental
challenges

Population Ecology Ecosystem Ecology

„ Population ecology focuses „ Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow
on factors affecting how and chemical cycling among the various
many individuals of a biotic and abiotic components
species live in an area

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Landscape Ecology
„ Landscape ecology deals with arrays of
ecosystems and how they are arranged in a
geographic region
Interactions between organisms and the environment
determine the distribution of species
„ Ecologists have long recognized global and regional
patterns of distribution of organisms within the biosphere
– Biogeographic realms - Biogeography

Ecology and Environmental Flowchart of Factors limiting

Issues geographic distribution
„ Ecology provides the
scientific understanding
underlying environmental
issues
„ Rachel Carson is credited
with starting the modern
environmental movement
„ Most ecologists follow the
precautionary principle
regarding environmental
issues

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 Dispersal and Distribution
„ Dispersal is movement of individuals away from
centers of high population density or from their
area of origin
„ Dispersal contributes to global distribution of
organisms
„ If a species is absent from an area Æ Why?
Natural Range Expansions
„ Natural range expansions show the
influence of dispersal on distribution
– Cattle Egrets
– Brown-
Brown-headed Cowbirds
Species Transplants
„ Species transplants include organisms that are
intentionally or accidentally relocated from their
original distribution
„ Species transplants can disrupt the communities or
ecosystems to which they have been introduced
Behavior and Habitat Selection
„ Some organisms do not occupy all of their
potential range
„ Species distribution may be limited by
habitat selection behavior
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 Biotic Factors
„ Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include:
– Interactions with other species
– Predation
– Competition

Abiotic Factors Climate

„ Abiotic factors affecting distribution of organisms:
– Temperature affects biological processes
– Water availability in habitats is another important factor „ Four major abiotic components of climate:
in species distribution temperature,
temperature, water,
water, sunlight,
sunlight, and wind
– Sunlight
„ Light intensity and quality affects photosynthesis „ Climate is the prevailing weather in an area
„ Light is also important to development and behavior of
organisms sensitive to photoperiod „ Macroclimate consists of patterns on the global,
– Wind regional, and local level
„ Wind amplifies effects of temperature by increasing heat loss
from evaporation and convection „ Microclimate consists of very fine patterns, such as
„ Wind can change morphology of plants
– Rocks and soil
those encountered by the community of organisms
„ Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of plants and thus
thus underneath a fallen log
the animals that feed upon them:
„ Physical structure
„ pH
„ Mineral composition

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 Global Climate Patterns Seasonality
„ Global climate patterns are determined largely by solar „ The angle of the sun leads to many seasonal
energy and the planet’
planet’s movement in space changes in local environments
„ Sunlight intensity is a major determinant for Earth’
Earth’s climate „ Lakes are sensitive to seasonal temperature change
patterns and experience seasonal turnover
„ Seasonal variations increase steadily toward the poles

Regional, Local, and Seasonal

Long-
Long-Term Climate Change
Effects on Climate „ One way to predict future global climate change is to study
previous changes
„ Various features of the landscape contribute to local
„ Beech trees migrate at 0.2 km/year – too slow to keep up
variations in climate with climate change – must move at 7-7-9 km/year
„ Seasonal variation also influences climate
„ Oceans and their currents and large lakes moderate the
climate of nearby terrestrial environments
„ Mountains have a significant effect on
– The amount of sunlight reaching an area
– Local temperature
– Rainfall

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 Climate largely determines the
Abiotic and biotic factors influence the
structure and dynamics of aquatic biomes
distribution and structure of
terrestrial biomes
„ Varying combinations of biotic and abiotic factors
determine the nature of biomes
„ Climate is very important in determining why
„ Biomes are the major ecological associations that terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas
occupy broad geographic regions of land or water
„ Climate has a great impact on the distribution of
„ Aquatic biomes account for the largest part of the
biosphere in terms of area organisms, as seen on a climograph
„ They can contain fresh water or salt water
„ Oceans cover about 75% of Earth’
Earth’s surface and
have an enormous impact on the biosphere

LE 50-
50-19

Aquatic Zonation

30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S

Key Chaparral Tundra

Temperate grassland High mountains
Tropical forest
Temperate broadleaf forest Polar ice
Savanna
Coniferous forest
Desert

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 Climagraph Trop.
Forest

Desert

Savanna

Chaparral

Grasslands
Conifers

Deciduous
Tundra

General Features of Terrestrial

Biomes
„ Terrestrial biomes are often named for major physical or
climatic factors and for vegetation
„ Stratification is a key feature of terrestrial biomes
„ Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other, without
sharp boundaries
„ The area of intergradation,
intergradation, called an ecotone,
ecotone, may be wide
or narrow
„ Major terrestrial biomes:
– Tropical forest
– Desert
– Savanna
– Chaparral
– Temperate grassland
– Coniferous forest
– Temperate broadleaf forest
– Tundra