THE OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME In oxy-acetylene welding, the tool used is not really the torch; its the flame.

The torch should never touch the material being welded. The only purpose of the torch is to provide a gas mixture which will produce the flame best suited to the work to be done. There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene flames, usually termed: Neutral Excess Acetylene (or carburizing) Oxidizing (or excess oxygen ) The type of flame produced depends upon the ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture which leaves the torch tip. The neutral flame (Fig. 4-1) is produced when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene, in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one. Its termed neutral because it will usually have no chemical effect on the metal being welded. It will not oxidize the weld metal; it will not cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal. The excess acetylene flame (Fig. 4-2), as its name implies, is created when the proportion of acetylene in the mixture is higher than that required to produce the neutral flame. Used on steel, it will cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal. The oxidizing flame (Fig. 4-3) results from burning a mixture which contains more oxygen than required for a neutral flame. It will oxidize or burn some of the metal being welded. Chemistry of the Flame When acetylene is burned in air, the end products are carbon dioxide (carbon plus oxygen) and water vapor (hydrogen plus oxygen). A chemical equation covering complete combustion reads like this: 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 = 4 CO2 + 2 H2O In everyday terms, this means that to burn two cubic feet of acetylene you must use five cubic feet of oxygen, or 2- 1/2 times as much oxygen as acetylene. Yet we have just said that the neutral flame is produced by burning a one- to-one mixture of oxygen and acetylene, and that the neutral flame does not contain an excess of either gas. This might seem to be a bit of a contradiction, but it is not, since the equation given above represents an over- simplification of the combustion process. Actually, combustion in the oxyacetylene flame takes place in two distinct stages; for the first, the oxygen is supplied by the mixture leaving the torch; for the second, the oxygen is supplied by the air around the flame. In the first stage of combustion, the acetylene breaks down into carbon and hydrogen, and the carbon reacts with the oxygen to form carbon monoxide. In chemical terms: C2H2 + O2 = 2 CO + H2 In words, this means that you need one molecule of oxygen for each molecule of acetylene. A cubic foot of acetylene contains the same number of molecules as a cubic foot of oxygen. In the second stage of combustion, the carbon monoxide (CO) reacts with oxygen from the air to form carbon dioxide (CO2). The hydrogen reacts with oxygen from the air to form water (H2O). The chemical equations are these: 2 CO+O2= 2 CO2 2 H2 + O2 = 2 H2O (or, H2 + O = H2O)

It is this two-stage combustion process which produces the well-defined inner cone in the oxy-acetylene flame. The first stage of reaction takes place at the boundary between the inner cone and the pale blue outer flame. The second stage takes place in the outer flame. If the proportion of acetylene supplied to the tip is increased, a white feather appears around the inner cone. This feather contains white-hot particles of carbon which, for lack of sufficient oxygen in the original mixture, cannot be oxidized to carbon monoxide at the inner cone boundary. On the other hand, if the proportion of oxygen fed to the tip is increased, the inner cone will shorten noticeably and the noise of the flame will increase. Flame Adjustment For most welding, a neutral flame is desired. Not even a skilled welder can distinguish visually between a true neutral flame and a slightly oxidizing flame. But anyone who knows what to look for can tell the difference between a neutral flame and a flame with a slight excess acetylene feather. Therefore, we always adjust the flame to neutral from the excess-acetylene side. We start with an excess of acetylene when we light the torch and then increase the flow of oxygen until the excess-acetylene feather just disappears. If the flame is then too large for our purposes, we reduce the oxygen flow first, to produce a feather, then cut back on the acetylene flow until the feather just disappears. Occasionally, you will read instructions which call for a slight excess of oxygen, or a slight excess of acetylene. Generally speaking, such instructions imply that a slight excess of one gas cannot cause trouble, but that a slight excess of the other gas may. Unless otherwise defined, a slight excess of acetylene means that you can just see a short feather. A slight excess of oxygen means that youve reduced the acetylene flow until the feather has disappeared, then reduced it a bit more to cause a slight shortening of the inner cone. For some operations, a substantial excess of acetylene is desired. The amount of excess is then expressed numerically, as 2X, 3X, or perhaps 1-1/2X. In a 2X excess acetylene flame the feather (measured from the end of the torch tip, not the end of the inner cone) is twice as long as the inner cone. When a precise statement of amount of excess oxygen is required, it is always expressed in terms of the shortening of the inner cone from the neutral flame length. The Welding Torch The gas welding torch is made up of a torch handle and a welding head. For marketing convenience, the handle is often packed separately, and labelled torch, but it cant be used for welding until you put the welding head on it. The key parts of a complete welding torch, as shown in the simplified sketch (Fig. 5-2), are valves to control the flow of oxygen and acetylene, a mixer through which the gases pass, a mixing chamber into which the gases are allowed to expand and mix after leaving the mixer, and a welding tip. Of these four sections, only the valves are normally in the handle. The mixer, mixing chamber, and tip are in the welding head. The valves (often called throttle valves) must be big enough to pass the volumes of gas required for the flame without too much pressure drop. In an allpurpose handle, where the flow rate for each gas may range from 4 to 200 cfh (0.1 to 5.6 m3/hr), they must be more generously proportioned than in a small handle designed for flows up to about 55 cfh (1.5 m3/hr). Valves must be equipped with leakproof packing, and

are normally fitted with packing nuts which allow the pressure on the packing to be adjusted for the desired stiffness of the valve operation The mixer is perhaps misnamed, since it doesnt actually mix the gases, but merely meters them into the mixing chamber. Two types of mixers are widely used: the mediumpressure type, to which the gases are usually supplied at approximately equal pressures, and the injector type, to which the oxygen is supplied at relatively high pressure (up to 55 psi or more) and the acetylene is supplied at rather low pressure (down to less than 1 psi). In the injector type, the oxygen passes through a very small orifice in the injector, and the expansion of the oxygen as it leaves that orifice pulls the acetylene into the mixing chamber. An advantage of the injector is that minor fluctuations in oxygen pressure and flow cause changes in the amount of acetylene drawn into the mixing chamber and maintain the normal ratio of the gas mixture. This is especially helpful when oxygen is supplied to the torch from a plant piping system, where changes in demand placed on the system may cause pressure fluctuations. As already stated, the mixer, whether mediumpressure or injector type, is normally a part of the welding head. The reason is this: There must be a relationship between the sizes of the orifices in the mixer and the size of the orifice in the welding tip. A single mixer cannot serve a wide range of tip sizes. Further, all the passages in the welding head must be designed so that if the flame is forced back into the head, as by momentary contact of the torch tip against the work, it will not continue to burn just ahead of the mixer, but will be extinguished without damage to head or torch. The Cutting Torch The cutting torch must not only meter and mix oxygen and fuel gas to feed the flames required for oxygen cutting, but must also control the stream of oxygen required for the cutting jet. In almost all torches designed for hand cutting, all the oxygen is fed to the torch through one oxygen hose. Just inside the torch body, the stream of oxygen is split, with one part passing through the valve which provides on-off control of the cutting oxygen jet, the other part passing through the throttle valve which controls oxygen flow to the mixer. Cutting torches for use in cutting machines usually are fitted with two oxygen inlet connections, with oxygen supplied through separate regulators. As in the case of welding torches, cutting torches are offered with two types of mixers: the injector type, and the medium-pressure type. The medium-pressure type is by far the more common. An injector is generally used in torches designed to operate with natural gas as the fuel, since natural gas piping systems are often operated at pressures of 5 psi or less. A few acetylene piping systems are still operated at low pressure (less than 1 psi) and require use of injector-type torches. In most cutting torches, a single mixer is used to cover the full range of nozzle sizes. This is feasible because the mixed-gas requirements for cutting steel 8 in. thick are only about four times the mixed-gas requirements for cutting 1/2 in. steel, while even a light-duty welding torch uses a range of tips whose requirements vary much more widely, as noted under Welding Torches. Every hand cutting torch has some kind of a lever for opening and closing the cutting oxygen valve. Designers try to locate the lever so that it can be squeezed or pressed slowly to start the

cut, and then easily held wide open while the cut is in progress. Latches for locking the lever in wide open position are provided on some torches. Regulators The pressure in a full cylinder of oxygen is about 2200 psi at 700F (15200 kPa at 200C); in a full cylinder of acetylene, pressure is about 250 psi at 700F (1725 kPa at 200C). Oxygen must be supplied to welding and cutting torches at pressures ranging downward from about 100 psi to 5 psi (69 to 35 kPa) and acetylene at pressure of 15 psi (103 kPa) or less. To reduce cylinder pressures to desired working pressures, we use adjustable pressurereducing regulators. They are designed so that they will maintain a steady working pressure as cylinder pressure drops. Fig. 5-9 presents the basic elements of a typical regulator. The high-pressure gas passes through a valve which is actuated by a flexible diaphragm. On one side of the diaphragm there is gas at the pressure to which it has been reduced by passing through the valve. On the other side, there is a spring. The loading on the spring can be varied by means of the pressure-adjusting screw. When demand for gas reduces the force applied by the gas against the diaphragm until it is less than the force applied by the spring, the diaphragm moves left and the valve opens wider. When gas pressure against the diaphragm increases, due to a decrease in demand, or the closing of a torch valve, the diaphragm moves to the right, and the valve opening is reduced, or the valve closes completely. Two-Stage Regulators It is impossible to build a one-stage regulator which will, without any readjustment of the pressure-adjusting screw, maintain absolutely constant delivery pressure as the gas in a cylinder is used up and the cylinder pressure falls. Why? Because the inlet pressure itself, acting against the valve parts, is a variable force. Depending upon the valve design, the delivery pressure may rise, or may fall, as the cylinder pressure decreases. In many types of operations, that rise or fall is not enough to be troublesome. It can be eliminated entirely by using a two-stage regulator. In such a regulator, the first stage reduces cylinder pressure to a fixed intermediate pressure (usually about 350 psi in an oxygen regulator) and the adjustable second stage reduces that intermediate pressure to the final working pressure. While the intermediate pressure may change as much as 20 psi as the cylinder pressure drops, that change in pressure supplied to the second stage is not enough to cause a measurable change in delivery pressure. After cylinder pressure has dropped below the level of the first-stage pressure setting, the first- stage valve remains open and the regulator acts like a single-stage regulator. The big advantage of the two-stage regulator is this: the materials used in each stage can be selected for their serviceability over a much narrower range of working conditions. For example, the second-stage valve seat can be a resilient material which seals much more readily than the harder materials which must be used to hold full oxygen cylinder pressure. (Full cylinder pressure will force its way right past any rubber seat.) The net result is this: Two- stage regulators will generally stand up better in heavy-duty, constant service, and require less maintenance than single-stage regulators.

OxyFuel Backhand Welding In this method, the torch precedes the welding rod, as shown in figure 11-5. The torch is held at approximately a 45 degree angle from the vertical away from the direction of welding, with the flame directed at the molten puddle. The welding rod is between the flame and the molten puddle. This position requires less transverse motion than is used in forehand welding. Increased speeds and better control of the puddle are possible with backhand technique when metal 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) and thicker is welded, based on the study of speeds normally achieved with this technique and on greater ease of obtaining fusion at the weld root. Backhand welding may be used with a slightly reducing flame (slight acetylene feather) when desirable to melt a minimum amount of steel in making a joint. The increased carbon content obtained from this flame lowers the melting point of a thin layer of steel and increases welding speed. This technique increases speed of making pipe joints where the wall thickness is 1/4 to 5/16 in. (6.4 to 7.9 mm) and groove angle is less than normal. Backhand welding is sometimes used in surfacing operations. OxyFuel Welding Forehand

In the OxyFuel Welding forehand method, the welding rod precedes the torch. The torch is held at approximately a 45 degree angle from the vertical in the direction of welding, as shown in figure 11-4. The flame is pointed in the direction of welding and directed between the rod and the molten puddle. This position permits uniform preheating of the plate edges immediately ahead of the molten puddle. By moving the torch and the rod in opposite semicircular paths, the heat can be carefully balanced to melt the end of the rod and the side walls of the plate into a uniformly distributed molten puddle. The rod is dipped into the leading edge of the puddle so that enough filler metal is melted to produce an even weld joint. The heat which is reflected backwards from the rod keeps the metal molten. The metal is distributed evenly to both edges being welded by the motion of the tip.
In general, the forehand oxyfuel welding method is recommended for welding material up to 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) thick, because it provides better control of the small weld puddle, resulting in a smoother weld at both top and bottom. The puddle of molten metal is small and easily controlled. A great deal of pipe welding is done using the forehand technique, even in 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) wall thick-nesses. In contrast, some difficulties in welding heavier plates using the forehand method are: (1) The edges of the plate must be beveled to provide a wide V with a 90 degree included angle. This edge preparation is necessary to ensure satisfactory melting of the plate edges, good penetration, and fusion of the weld metal to the base metal. (2) Because of this wide V, a relatively large molten puddle is required. It is difficult to obtain a good joint when the puddle is too large.

Backfire A backfire is a loud noise produced by the explosion of gases at the cutting or welding tip usually following a minor flashback of the flame, extinguishment, and re-ignition at the tip. Repeated backfire can cause tip to overheat and eventually cause a sustained flashback. Causes are: Bringing tip too close to work or touching it; Foreign particles entering tip and impeding gas flow; Overheated tip, such as caused by working in corners; Trying to operate with incorrect or too low a gas flow. Backfire remedy Close the blowpipe control valves (fuel gas first); Check the nozzle is tight; Check the pressures on regulators; Re-light the torch using the recommended procedure; If the flame continues to burn: Close the oxygen valve at the torch (to prevent internal burning); Close the acetylene valve at the torch; Close cylinder valves or gas supply point isolation valves for both oxygen and acetylene; Close outlets of adjustable pressure regulators by winding out the pressureadjusting screws; Open both torch valves to vent the pressure in the equipment; Close torch valves; Check nozzle tightness and pressures on regulators; Re-light the torch using the recommended procedure Flashback and its causes A flashback is a burning back of the flame into the tip, or into or through the torch. It is also called a sustained burning in tip or torch. A flashback can be caused by faulty or misused equipment. If it doesnt cause fire or hose rupture, then it may produce a hissing or squealing due to burning inside torch or tip (usually at the mixer). Examples of faulty or misused equipment are: Failure to purge. Incorrect pressures. Distorted or loose tips or adapter seats. Kinked hoses. Clogged tip or torch orifices. Overheated tip or torch What can you do to prevent flashback? Before lighting the blowpipe, purge the hoses by opening the gas supply to each hose for a few seconds. Fit non-return valves (often called check valves) on the torch, to prevent backfeeding of gas into the hoses.

 Inspect nozzles regularly. Make sure they are not blocked by dirt or spatter. Replace damaged nozzles. Steps for Turning on the Oxygen and Acetylene Torch 1) Check regulator valves (make sure both are off loose). 2) Open Acetylene tank valve (open slowly half turn). 3) Open Oxygen tank valve (open slowly open all of the way). 4) Set Acetylene line pressure (slowly turn regulator valve clockwise to 5 psi). 5) Set Oxygen line pressure (slowly turn regulator valve clockwise to 5 psi weld; 20 psi cut). 6) Open torch Acetylene valve (open 1/8 turn). 7) Light torch (with friction lighter not another torch, hot metal, or match). 8) Adjust Acetylene torch valve (adjust to light smoke). 9) Adjust Oxygen torch valve (adjust to neutral flame). 10) Weld or Cut. Steps for Turning off the Oxygen and Acetylene Torch 1) Turn off Acetylene torch valve (allow Oxygen to flow out flame). 2) Turn off Oxygen torch valve (gentle pressure on valves). 3) Close Acetylene tank valve (turn to right until valve is seated). 4) Close Oxygen tank valve. 5) Open Acetylene torch valve (regulator gauge should go to zero). 6) Close Acetylene torch valve (do not leave open while draining oxygen). 7) Open Oxygen torch valve (regulator gauge should go to zero). 8) Close Oxygen torch valve (do not leave open). 9) Back out Acetylene regulator valve to loosen. 10) Back out Oxygen regulator valve to loosen. 11) Hang up hose. 12) Clean up. Welding Arc Blow Arc blow is the deflection of an electric arc from its normal path due to magnetic forces. It is mainly encountered with dc welding of magnetic materials, such as steel, iron, and nickel, but can also be encountered when welding nonmagnetic materials. It will usually adversely affect appearance of the weld, cause excessive spatter, and can also impair the quality of the weld. It is often encountered when using the shielded metal arc welding process with covered electrodes. It is also a factor in semiautomatic and fully automatic arc welding processes. Direct current, flowing through the electrode and the base metal, sets up magnetic fields around the electrode, which deflect the arc from its intended path. The welding arc is usually deflected forward or backward of the direction of travel;

however, it may be deflected from one side to the other. Back blow is encountered when welding toward the ground near the end of a joint or into a corner. Forward blow is encountered when welding away from the ground at the start of a joint. Arc blow can become so severe that it is impossible to make a satisfactory weld Summary of Factors Causing Arc Blow. (1) Arc blow is caused by magnetic forces. The induced magnetic forces are not symmetrical about the magnetic field surrounding the path of the welding current. The location of magnetic material with respect to the arc creates a magnetic force on the arc which acts toward the easiest magnetic path and is independent of electrode polarity. The location of the easiest magnetic path changes constantly as welding progresses; therefore, the intensity and the direction of the force changes. (2) Welding current will take the easiest path but not always the most direct path through the work to the work lead connection. The resultant magnetic force is opposite in direction to the current from the arc to is independent of welding current polarity. (3) Arc blow is not as severe with alternating current because the induction principle creates current flow within the base metal which creates magnetic fields that tend to neutralize the magnetic field affecting the arc. (4) The greatest magnetic force on the arc is caused by the difference resistance of the magnetic path in then the base metal around the arc. The location of the work connection is of secondary importance, but may have an effect on reducing the total magnetic force on the arc. It is best to have the work lead connection at the starting point of the weld. This is particularly true in electroslag welding where the work lead should be connected to the starting sump. On occasion, the work lead can be changed to the opposite end of the joint. In sane cases, leads can be connected to both ends. k. Minimizing Arc Blow. (1) The magnetic forces acting on the arc can be modified by changing the magnetic path across the joint. This can be accomplished by runoff tabs, starting plates, large tack welds, and backing strips, as well as the welding sequence.(2) An external magnetic field produced by an electromagnet may be effective. This can be accomplished by wrapping several turns of welding lead around the workpiece. (3) Arc blow is usually more pronounced at the start of the weld seam. In this case, a magnetic shunt or runoff tab will reduce the blow. (4) Use as short an arc as possible so that there is less of an arc for the magnetic forces to control.

(5). The welding fixture can be a source of arc blow; therefore, an analysis with respect to fixturing is important. The hold-down clamps and backing bars must fit closely and tightly to the work. In general, copper or nonferrous metals should be used. Magnetic structure of the fixture can affect the magnetic forces controlling the arc. (6) Place ground connections as far as possible from the joints to welded. (7) If to back blow is the problem, place the ground connection at the start of welding, and weld toward a heavy tack weld. (8) If forward blow causes trouble, place the ground connection at the end of the joint to be welded. (9) Position the electrode so that the arc force counteracts the arc blow. (10) Reduce the welding current. (11) Use the backstep sequence of welding. (12) Change to ac, which may require a change in electrode classification (13) Wrap the ground cable around the workpiece in a direction such that the magnetic field it sets up will counteract the magnetic field causing the arc blow. (14) Another major problem can result from magnetic fields already in the base metal, particularly when the base metal has been handled by magnet lifting cranes. Residual magnetism in heavy thick plates handled by magnets can be of such magnitude that it is almost impossible to make a weld. Attempt to demagnetize the parts, wrap the part with welding leads to help overcome their effect, or stress relieve or anneal the parts.