2102-487 Industrial Electronics

Transducers

Industrial Measurement Environment

Field

-40oC to + 85oC Humidity Hazardous environment

Control Room

Indicator

M
Sensors Signal conditioning Transmitter Signal conditioning
Operator/ Computing Interface

DCS Controller

Control Room Noise Source

Records

Air Conditioned Space

Interference

Motor/Power

Arcing

Lighting

Objectives
Able to read and interpret the manufacturers specifications Understand the physical principles of various sensors Able to design a simple measurement system from specifications:
Selection of Sensors Design signal conditioners and transmitters

Definition
Transducer
a device which, when actuated by energy in one system, supplies energy in the same form or in another form to a second system.

Sensor (input transducer)

a device converts the physical or non-physical signal which is to be measured into an electrical signal which can be processed or transmitted electronically.

Actuator (output transducer)

a device converts the modified electrical signal into a nonelectrical signal.

Lists of Energy Forms

Atomic energy Related to the force between nuclei and electrons Is described by Einstein as part of his relativity theory, Is the binding energy in molecules Is the binding energy between nuclei E = mc2 Related to electric field, current, voltage etc. Related to the gravitational attraction between a mass and earth Related to the motion, displacement, force, etc. Deals with magnetic field etc. Is related to electromagnetic radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays Related to the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules

Chemical

Mass energy Molecular energy Nuclear energy

Mechanical

Electrical energy Gravitational energy Mechanical energy Magnetic energy Radiant energy Thermal energy

Signal domains with examples

Mechanical Length, area, volume, all time derivatives such as linear/angular velocity/acceleration, mass flow, force , torque, pressure, acoustic wavelength and intensity Temperature, (specific) heat, entropy, heat flow, state of matter Voltage, current,charge, resistance, inductance, capacitance, dielectric constant, polarization, electric field, frequency, dipole moment Field intensity, flux density, magnetic moment, permeability Intensify, phase, wavelength, polarization, reflectance, transmittance, refractive index Composition, concentration, reaction rate, pH, oxidation/reduction potential

Thermal Electrical

Magnetic Radiant Chemical

Output Input Mechanical

Mechanical
(Fluid) Mechanical and Acoustic Effects: e.g.: Diaphragm Gravity balance, Echo sounder Thermal Expansion (Bimetallic Strip, Liquid-inGlass and Gas Thermometers, Resonant Frequency) Radiometer Effect (Light Mill) Electron kinetic and Electromechanical Effects: eg. Piezoelectircity Electrometer Amperes Law Magnetomechanical Effects: eg. Magnetostriction Magnetometer

Thermal
Friction Effects (e.g.. Friction Calorimeter) Cooling Effects (e.g. Thermal Flow meter)

Electrical
Piezoelectricity Piezoresistivity Resistive, Capacitive, and Inductive effects

Magnetic
Magnetomechanical Effects: e.g. Piezomagnetic Effect

Radiant
Photoelastic Systems (Stress-induced Birefringence) Interferometers Sagnac Effect Doppler Effect Thermooptical Effects (e.g. in Liquid Crystals) Radiant Emission

Chemical

Thermal

Seebeck Effects Thermoresistance Pyroelecricity Thermal (Johnson) Noise

Reaction Activation eg. Thermal Dissociation

Electrical

Joule (Resistive) Heating Peltier Effect

Charge Collectors Langmuir Probe

Biot-Savarts Law

Electrooptical Effects: eg. Kerr Effect Pockels Effect Electroluminescence

Electrolysis Electromigration

Magnetic

Thermomagnetic Effects: eg. Righi-Leduc Effect Galvanomagnetic Effects: eg. Ettingshausen Effect Bolometer Thermopile

Thermomagnetic Effects: e.g. Ettinghausen-Nerst Effect Galvanomagnetic Effects: e.g. Hall Effect, Magnetoresistance Photoelectirc Effects: e.g. Photovoltaic Effect Photoconductive Effect Potentiometry, Conductimetry, Amperometry Flame Ionization Volta Effect Gas Sensitive Field Effect Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Magnetooptical Effects: eg. Faraday Effect Cotton-Mouton Effect

Radiant

Radiation Pressure

Photorefractive Effects Optical Bistability

Photosynthesis Photodissociation

Chemical

Hygrometer Electrodeposition cell Photoacoustic Effect

Calorimeter Thermal Conductivity Cell

(Emission and Absorption) Spectroscopy Chemoluminescence

Transduction Principles: Physic + Chemistry

Output
Mechanical Mechanical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Radiant Chemical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Radiant Chemical

Primary input

sensor Classification of Sensors actuator

transducer modifier

Sensor Applications
Monitoring of processes and operations Control of processes and operations Experimental engineering analysis Environment and safety measurement
Reference value, Td Error signal Heater Td - Ta Ta Temp. sensor Room Room Temperatrue, Ta

A simple closed-loop control system

Dummy driver

Transducer Specifications
Transducer specifications or characteristics give the information of how well and how quick the transducer converts what is measuring into electrical signal. Static Specifications
Accuracy Resolution Linearity Repeatability Linearity etc.

Dynamic Specifications
Rise time Time constant Cut off frequency Dead time or Time delay Settling time etc.

Static Characteristics: Static Calibration

Static calibration: A test in which known values of the measurand (input) are applied to a sensor (measurement system) for the purpose of observing the sensor (system) output. The input-output relation is socalled Calibration curve. Unless specifically indicated, calibration is static. An input is applied and the output monitored until it has stopped changing. In any measurement, the error can not be known exactly since the true value (input) is not known. However, from the results of a calibration, the operator might feel confident that error is within certain bounds, a plus or minus range of the indicated reading.

Static Calibration: Statistical Control

Measurement process Environment (P, T, rh etc.) Measuring instrument
Certain inputs which are largely contributed to the overall error must be kept constant. uncontrolled inputs affect the instrument in random nature

Measurement Method

Measurand

Effect of uncontrolled input on calibration

Static Characteristics
Measurand range, operating range, full-scale range, span: the range of input variable (xmax xmin) that produces a meaningful output.
Dynamic range is defined as the ratio of the largest to the smallest input that instrument will faithfully measure. It is normally given in decibels (dB).

Full scale output (FSO): Difference between the end points of the output. The upper
limit of output over the measurand range is called the full scale (FS)

Offset: The output of a transducer, under room temperature condition unless otherwise
specified, with zero measurand applied.

Sensitivity: Incremental ratio of the output electrical signal (y) to the desired input
signal (x). S= y x

Static Characteristics

full scale output (FSO)

full scale

S=

y x

offset measurand range

Linear case: Nonlinear case:

y = Sx + offset y = S ( x) x + offset

Static Characteristics
Accuracy: the difference between the true (expected) and measured values from
the measurement system or sensor. Normally, it is quoted in as a fractional of the full scale output.

Percentage of reading
a (%) =
( ym yt ) 100 yt

Percentage of full scale

f (%) =
( ym yt ) 100 yFSO

Absolute error: expressed in the units of the input parameter

Static Characteristics
Resolution: the smallest increment in the value of the measurand that results in a
detectable increment in the output. It is expressed in the percentage of the measurand range x Resolution (%) = 100 xmax xmin If the input is increased from zero, there will be some minimum value below which no output change can be detected, This minimum value defines the Threshold of the instrument.

Each time the shaft rotates of a revolution, a pulse will be generated. So, this encoder has a 90oC resolution.

Simple optical encoder

Static Characteristics
Example: A temperature transducer that outputs 10 mV/oC is used to measure the
temperature in a chamber that goes from 0 to 100oC. Can 8 bit A/D converter with a 5-V full-scale input be used to produce a 1oC resolution?

Solution: An 8-bit A/D converter has a resolution of 1 part in 28. So for 5-V full-scale
input, each bit is worth
5V = 19.5 mV 256

A 1oC causes only a 10-mV input change. It appears that the converter does not enough resolution.

Overall resolution = 1.95oC/bit Temp. sensor

S = 10 mV/oC Res. = Input = 0 100oC Output = 0 -1V

A/D
Res. = 19.5 mV/bit Input = 0 - 5 V Output = 0 - 255

Static Characteristics
Overall resolution = 1.95oC/bit Temp. sensor
S = 10 mV/oC Res. = Input = 0 100oC Output = 0 -1V

A/D
Res. = 19.5 mV/bit Input = 0 - 5 V Output = 0 - 255

Overall resolution = 0.39oC/bit Temp. sensor

S = 10 mV/oC Res. = Input = 0 -100oC Output = 0 -1V

Amp.
Gain = 5 Input = 0 - 1 V Output = 0 - 5 V

A/D
Res. = 19.5 mV/bit Input = 0 - 5 V Output = 0 - 255

S = 50 mV/oC

Static Characteristics
Repeatability: a measure of how well the output returns to a given value when the
same precise input is applied several times. Or the ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of reading within a given accuracy.

Precision: how exactly and reproducibly an unknown value is measured.

repeatability =

maximum minimum 100% full scale

repeatability =

largest deviation average 100% full scale

How about: a transducer that is repeatable but not overly accurate

Static Characteristics
Example: Three load cells are tested for repeatability. The same 50-kg weight is
placed on each load cell 10 times. The resulting data are given in the following table. Discuss the repeatability and accuracy of each transducer. If the full scale output of these load cells is 20 mV.
Load cell output (mV) B

Trail no.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Maximum Average Minimum

10.02 10.96 11.20 9.39 10.50 10.94 9.02 9.47 10.08 9.32 11.20 10.09 9.02

11.50 11.53 11.52 11.47 11.42 11.51 11.58 11.50 11.43 11.48 11.58 11.49 11.42

10.00 10.03 10.02 9.93 9.92 10.01 10.08 10.00 9.97 9.98 10.08 9.99 9.92

Static Characteristics
Load cell A
Global accurate but not repeatable
11.6 11.4 11.2 11.0 10.8 Output (mV) 10.6 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.2 9.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Trial no. 6
Ave. Max.

Load cell B
Not accurate but repeatable
Max.

Load cell C
Accurate and repeatable
x
11.6 11.4 11.2 11.0 10.8 Output (mV) 10.6 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.2 9.0
Max.

11.6 11.4 11.2

x x x x x
Min

Min.

x
Output (mV)

11.0 10.8 10.6 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.6

Expected output

x
Min.

x x
7

x
9 10

9.4 9.2 9.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Trial no. 6 7 8 9 10

5 Trial no.

10

measured value

random error

measured average systematic error

true or expected output Trail no.

Static Characteristics
Hysteresis: Difference in the output of the sensors for a given input value x, when x is
increased and decreased or vice versa. (expressed in % of FSO) (indication of reproducibility)

100

maximum hysteresis

output (%FSO) 0

0 measurand (% range)

100

Static Characteristics
Linearity: (also called Nonlinearity) A measure of deviation from linear of the
sensor, which is usually descried in terms of the percentage of FSO. (1) best-fit straight line (2) terminal-based straight line (3) independent straight line

100 output (%FSO)

output (%FSO)

output (%FSO)

maximum nonlinearity

100

maximum nonlinearity

maximum 100 nonlinearity

best-fit line 0

terminal-base line 0

independent line 0

100 measurand (% range)

100 measurand (% range)

100 measurand (% range)

Static Characteristics
Example: A load cell is a transducer used to measure weight. A calibration record
table is given below. Determine (a) accuracy, (b) hysteresis and (c) linearity of the transducer. If we assume that the true output has a linear relationship with the input.
Output (mV) Load (kg) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Increasing 0.08 0.45 1.02 1.71 2.55 3.43 4.48 5.50 6.53 7.64 8.70 9.85 11.01 12.40 13.32 14.35 15.40 16.48 17.66 18.90 19.93 Decreasing 0.06 0.88 2.04 3.10 4.18 5.13 6.04 7.02 8.06 9.35 10.52 11.80 12.94 13.86 14.82 15.71 16.84 17.92 18.70 19.51 20.02
20

15 Output (mV)
Decreasing

10
Increasing

20

40

60

80

100

Load (kg)

Static Characteristics
(a) Accuracy
Load (kg) 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 True Output Actual (mV) Output (mV) Error (mV) 0 0.08 -0.08 5 1 0.45 0.55 2 3 4 5 6 7 1.02 1.71 2.55 3.43 4.48 5.50 0.98 1.29 1.45 1.57 1.52 1.50 %FSO -0.40 2.75 4.90 6.45 7.25 7.85 7.60 7.50 %reading a 55.00 49.00 43.00 36.25

20

Desired output = 0.2mV/kg x load

15 Output (mV)
Decreasing

31.40 25.33 21.43

10
Increasing

5 4 3 2 1 0

25 20 15 10 5 0

-0.13 -0.18 -0.10 -0.04 0.12 -0.06

5.13 4.18 3.10 2.04 0.88 0.06

-0.65 -0.90 -0.50 -0.20 0.60 -0.30 a

-2.60 -4.50 -3.33 -2.00 12.00

%FSO
0 0 20 40 60 80 100

%reading

Load (kg)

Accuracy: %FSO = 7.85% at 25 kg increasing %reading = 55% at 5 kg increasing

Static Characteristics
(b) Hysteresis
Output (mV) Load (kg) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Increasing 0.08 0.45 1.02 1.71 2.55 3.43 4.48 5.50 6.53 7.64 8.70 9.85 11.01 12.40 13.32 14.35 15.40 16.48 17.66 18.90 19.93 Decreasing 0.06 0.88 2.04 3.10 4.18 5.13 6.04 7.02 8.06 9.35 10.52 11.80 12.94 13.86 14.82 15.71 16.84 17.92 18.70 19.51 20.02 Hysteresis (%FSO) 0.10 2.15 5.10 6.95 8.15 8.50 7.80 7.60 7.65 8.55 9.10 9.75 9.65 7.30 7.50 6.80 7.20 7.20 5.20 3.05 0.45
20

15 Output (mV)

10
11.80 mV 9.85 mV 100% = 9.75%FSO 20 mV

20

40

60

80

100

Load (kg)

Hysteresis = 9.75 %FSO at 55 kg

Static Characteristics
(c) Linearity: Terminal-based straight line (endpoint straight line)
Load (kg) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Endpoint line (mV) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Actual Output (mV) 0.08 0.45 1.02 1.71 2.55 3.43 4.48 5.50 6 3 Linearity (%FSO) -0.40 2.75 4.90 6.45 7.25 7.85 7.60 7.50 3

20

endpoint
15 Output (mV)

10

12.00 mV 12.94 mV 100% = 4.70%FSO 20 mV

0 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

8 13.86 12.94 11.80 10.52 9.35 8.06 7.02 6.04 5.13 4.18 3.10 2.04 0.88 0.06

0 -4.30 -4.70 -4.00 -2.60 -1.75 -0.30 -0.10 -0.20 -0.65 -0.90 -0.50 -0.20 0.60 -0.30

5
5 .00 mV 3 .43 mV 100 % = 7 .85 %FSO 20 mV

20

40

60

80

100

endpoint

Load (kg)

Linearity = 7.85 %FSO at 25 kg =-4.70 %FSO at 60 kg

Static Characteristics
(c) Linearity: Independent straight line
20

15 Output (mV)

10

11.90 mV 12.94 mV 100% = 5.20%FSO 20 mV

5 .65 mV 4 .48 mV 100 % = 5 .85 %FSO 20 mV

20

40

60

80

100

Load (kg)

Linearity = 5.85 %FSO at 30 kg =-5.20 %FSO at 60 kg

Static Characteristics
(c) Linearity: Best-fit straight line
Least square method: minimizes the sum of the square of the vertical deviations of the data points from the fitted line. Here, we will estimate y by y = mx + b

m=

N xy x y 2 N x 2 ( x )

y x m b= N N
N = Total number of data points

Static Characteristics
x = Load (kg) y = Load cell output (mV)
x
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Here No. of Data N = 42

xy
0 2.25 10.2 25.65 51 85.75 134.4 192.5 261.2 343.8

y
0.08 0.45 1.02 1.71 2.55 3.43 4.48 5.50 6.53 7.64

x2
0.00 25.00 100.00 225.00 400.00 625.00 900.00 1225.00 1600.00 2025.00

m = 0.2079 mV/kg b = -0.6368 mV

Obtained eq.

y = 0.2079 mV/kg x -0.6368 mV

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2100

409.89

9.35 8.06 7.02 6.04 5.13 4.18 3.10 2.04 0.88 0.06

2025.00 1600.00 1225.00 900.00 625.00 400.00 225.00 100.00 25.00 0.00 143500

420.75 322.4 245.7 181.2 128.25 83.6 46.5 20.4 4.4 0 28499.45

Static Characteristics
(c) Linearity: Best-fit straight line
Load (kg) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
0 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

best-fit line (mV) -0.64 0.40 1.44 2.48 3.52 4.56 5.60 6.64 7.68 8.72 9.76 10 80

Actual Output (mV) 0.08 0.45 1.02 1.71 2.55 3.43 4.48 5.50 6.53 7.64 8.70 9 85

Linearity (%FSO) -3.56 -0.23 2.10 3.83 4.82 5.61 5.56 5.66 5.70 5.35 5.25 4 70

20

15 Output (mV)

10

12.94 mV 11.84 mV 100% = 5.47%FSO 20.15 mV

6.53 mV 7.86 mV 100% = 5.70%FSO 20.15 mV

39 12.88 11.84 10.80 9.76 8.72 7.68 6.64 5.60 4.56 3.52 2.48 1.44 0.40 -0.64

8 13.86 12.94 11.80 10.52 9.35 8.06 7.02 6.04 5.13 4.18 3.10 2.04 0.88 0.06

9 -4.88 -5.47 -4.97 -3.78 -3.13 -1.89 -1.89 -2.18 -2.83 -3.27 -3.07 -2.97 -2.37 -3.46

20

40

60

80

100

Load (kg)

Linearity = 5.70 %FSO at 40 kg =-5.47 %FSO at 60 kg

Static Characteristics
Operating conditions: Ambient conditions may have profound effects on sensor
operation. These include temperature, acceleration, vibration, shock, pressure, moisture, corrosive materials, and electromagnetic field.

Temperature zero drift: the change in the output level of a transducer due to
temperature variation when the input is set to zero.

Temperature sensitivity drift: the change in the output level of a transducer due
to temperature when the input is set to the specific range.
Sensitivity drift 100 output (%FSO) output (%FSO) 100 Temperature change Temperature span error 100 output (%FSO) Nominal desired temp. Total error

Temperature zero error 0 0 100 measurand (% range)

100 measurand (% range)

100 measurand (% range)

Zero drift

Static Characteristics
Overall Performance: An estimate of the overall sensor error is made based on all
known errors. An estimate is computed from The worst case approach:

ec = e1 + e2 + e3 + L + en
The root of sum square approach:
2 2 2 erss = e12 + e2 + e3 + L en

Specifications: Typical Pressure Transducer

Operation Input range Excitation Output range Temperature range Performance Linearity error eL Hystersis error eh Sensitivity error eS Thermal sensitivity error eST Thermal zero drift eZT 0-1000 cm H2O 15 V dc 0-5 V 0-50oC nominal at 25oC 0.5%FSO Less than 0.15%FSO 0.25%of reading 0.02%/oC of reading from 25oC 0.02%/oC FSO from 25oC

Worst case error

ec = eL + eh + eS + eST + eZT
Root of sum square error
2 2 2 2 2 erss = eL + eh + eS + eST + eZT

Specifications: Typical Pressure Transducer

Operation Input range Excitation Output range Temperature range Performance Linearity error eL Hystersis error eh Sensitivity error eS Thermal sensitivity error eST Thermal zero drift eZT 0-1000 cm H2O 15 V dc 0-5 V 0-50oC nominal at 25oC 0.5%FSO Less than 0.15%FSO 0.25%of reading 0.02%/oC of reading from 25oC 0.02%/oC FSO from 25oC

The transducer is used to measure a pressure of 500 cm H2O the ambient temperature is expected to vary between 18oC and 25oC . Estimate the magnitude of each elemental error affecting the measured pressure
Tamb 18-25oC 500 cm H2O Vout

Pressure

Error budget calculation of a pressure transducer

Performance Linearity error eL Hystersis error eh Sensitivity error eS Thermal sensitivity error eST Thermal zero drift eZT Worst case error Root square error Absolute error output 25 mV 7.5 mV 6.25 mV + 3.5 mV + 7.0 mV 49.25 mV = 0.99 %FSO 27.95 mV = 0.56 %FSO Absolute error transfer to input 5 cm H2O 1.5 cm H2O 1.25 cm H2O +0.7 cm H2O +1.4 cm H2O 9.9 cm H2O 5.6 cm H2O

Worst case error

ec = eL + eh + eS + eST + eZT = 25 7.5 6.25 3.5 7 = 49.25 mV = 0.99 %FSO = 1.98 %reading

Root of sum square error

2 2 2 2 2 + eh + eS + eST + eZT erss = eL

= 252 + 7.52 + 6.252 + 3.52 + 7 2 = 27.95 mV = 0.56 %FSO = 1.12 %reading

Output
Confidential band

Basic specifications
Input range Output range Offset Sensitivity

Performance specifications
Accuracy Resolution Repeatability Hysteresis Linearity environmental parameter

Input

Input

Sensor

Output