Chapter 4

Transducer and Sensors

Definitions: Transducer and sensors

 Transducer:
A device, usually electrical, electronic, or electro-mechanical, that
converts one type of energy into another for various purposes
including measurement or information transfer.
In a broader sense, it is sometimes defined as any device that
converts a signal from one form into another.
 Sensor: (e.g., thermometer)
Is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it
into a signal which can be measured or recorded
Acquires information from the “real world”
Sensor Systems
 Typically sensor system
convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
 General Sensor system
Sensor/ transducer: sense “real world” parameter and converted
into a suitable signal
Signal conditioning: converts the sensed signal into an analog or
digital electrical value
Purpose of sensor in mechatronics
1. To provide position, velocity, and acceleration information of the
measuring element in a system which provides feedback information
2. To act as protective mechanism for a system
3. To help eliminate mechanically complex and expensive feeding and
sorting devices
4. To provide identification and indication of the presence of different
components
5. To provide real time information concerning the nature of the task
being performed
Performance and terminology
 The desirable features of sensors are: 7. Repeatability
1. Range / span 8. Reliability
2. Errors and accuracy 9. Sensitivity
3. Non-linearity 10. Resolution
4. Hysteresis 11. Frequency Response
5. Dead band and Saturation 12. Response time
6. Output impedance 13. calibration
Range, Span and Error
• 
Range: lowest and highest values of the stimulus
Span: the arithmetic difference between the highest and lowest values
of the input that being sensed.
For example: a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a
range of 0 to 50 kN and a span of 50 kN
 Errors: is the difference between the result of the measurement and
the true value of the quantity being measured.

For Example, if a measurement system gives a temperature reading of

25°Cwhen the actual temperature is 24°C, then the error is 11°C. .
Accuracy

 Accuracy: is the extent to which the measured value might be wrong

and normally expressed in percentage
Example: A thermistor is used to measure temperature between –30
and +80 °C and produce an output voltage between 2.8V and 1.5V.
Because of errors, the accuracy in sensing is ±0.5 °C. so the measured
value may be high than or lower than by 0.5 °C
a. In terms of the input as ±0.5 °C
 b. Percentage of input: error = 0.5/(80+30)*100 = 0.454%
 c. In terms of output. From the transfer function: error= ±0.059V.
Sensitivity
•  Sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output there is per
unit input, i.e.
For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of .
 This term is also frequently used to indicate the sensitivity to
inputs other than that being measured, i.e. environmental changes.
A transducer for the measurement of pressure might be quoted as
having a temperature sensitivity of ±0.1%of the reading per °C
change in temperature.
Hysteresis Error

 Hysteresis is the deviation of the sensor’s

output at any given point when approached
from two different directions
 Caused by electrical or mechanical systems
 Magnetization
 Thermal properties
 Loose linkages

 If temperature is measured, at a rated temperature of 50°C, the output

might be 4.95V when temperature increases but 5.05V when
temperature decreases.
 This is an error of ±0.5% (for an output full scale of 10V in this
 Nonlinearity
 For many transducers a linear relationship between the input and output is assumed over the
working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to give a straight line.
 Few transducers, however, have a truly linear relationship and thus errors occur as a result of
the assumption of linearity.
 The error is defined as the maximum difference from the straight line.
 A few methods to do so:
a. end-range values
b. best straight line for all values
c. best straight line through the zero point
Repeatability
•  Also called reproducibility: failure of the sensor to represent the same

value under identical conditions when measured at different times.
Usually associated with calibration
Given as percentage of input full scale of the maximum difference
between two readings taken at different times under identical input
conditions.
Deadband/time

 The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input

values for which there is no output.
 For example, bearing friction in a flow-meter using a rotor might
mean that there is no output until the input has reached a particular
velocity threshold.
 The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input
until the output begins to respond and change.
 A device should not operate in this range unless this insensitivity is
acceptable.
Output impedance
 Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage and short circuit
current of the port (i.e. current when the output is shorted) output
impedance is important for interfacing
 When a sensor giving an electrical output is interfaced with an
electronic circuit it is necessary to know the output impedance since
this impedance is being connected in either series or parallel with that
circuit.
 The inclusion of the sensor can thus significantly modify the behavior
of the system to which it is connected.
Reliability

• Reliability: a statistical measure of quality of a device which indicates

the ability of the device to perform its stated function, under normal
operating conditions without failure for a stated period of time or
number of cycles.
• Given in hours, years or in MTBF
• Usually provided by the manufacturer
• Based on accelerated lifetime testing
Resolution
•  Resolution: the minimum increment in stimulus to which the sensor
can respond. It is the magnitude of the input change which results in
the smallest observable output.
• Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.1V is used to
measure the output of a sensor. The change in input (temperature,
pressure, etc.) that will provide a change of 0.1V on the voltmeter is
the resolution of the sensor/voltmeter system.
• In digital systems generally, resolution may be specified as (N is the
number of bit.)
Frequency response
 Frequency response: The ability of the device to respond to a
harmonic (sinusoidal) input
 A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.) as a function of
frequency
 Indicates the range of the stimulus in which the device is usable
(sensors and actuators)
 Provides important design parameters
 Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of plots is the Bode
diagram of the device
Response time
 Response time: indicates the time needed for the output to reach
steady state for a step change in input.
 Typically the response time will be given as the time needed to
reach 90% of steady state output upon exposure to a unit step
change in input.
 The response time of the device is due to the inertia of the device
(both “mechanical” and “electrical”).
 Fast response time is usually desirable
 Slow response times tend to average readings
Calibration
 Calibration: the experimental determination of the transfer function
of a sensor or actuator.
 Typically, needed when the transfer function is not known or,
 When the device must be operated at tolerances below those
specified by the manufacturer.
 Example, use a thermistor with a 5% tolerance on a full scale from
0 to 100°C to measure temperature with accuracy of, say, ±0.5 °C.
 The only way this can be done is by first establishing the transfer
function of the sensor.
Classification of Sensors
Sensors classification

According to According to According According

power or Energy various to principle to output
supply measurement of
requirement objective operation. signal
Cont..
According to power or energy supply
requirement of the sensors.

ACTIVE SENSOR: Sensors PASSIVE SENSOR: Sensors

that require power supply. that do not require power supply
Example: LIDAR (Light Example: Hg thermometer etc.
detection and ranging),
photoconductive cell
Cont..
2. According to Various Measurement Objective
2.1 Displacement, position and proximity sensors
Displacement sensors: are concerned with the measurement of the
amount by which some object has been moved.
Position sensors: are concerned with the determination of the position
of some object in relation to some reference point.
Proximity sensors: are a form of position sensor and are used to
determine when an object has moved to within some particular critical
distance of the sensor.
Example: potentiometer, Strain-gauged element, Proximity switches,
Optical encoder and etc.…
Cont..
2.2 Velocity and motion sensor
 Used to monitor linear and angular velocities and detect motion.
 Examples:
 Tachogenerator: used to measure angular velocity.
 Incremental encoder: used for the measurement of angular velocity, the number
of pulses produced per second being determined.
2.3 Force Sensors
 Forces are commonly measured by the measurement of displacements.
The displacement is then a measure of the force
 Examples:
 Strain gauge load cell: use of electrical resistance strain gauges to monitor the
strain produced in some member when stretched, compressed or bent by the
application of the force.
Cont..
2.4 Pressure Sensors
The types of pressure measurements that can be required are:
Absolute pressure where the pressure is measured relative to zero
pressure, i.e. a vacuum, differential pressure where a pressure difference
is measured and
Gauge pressure where the pressure is measured relative to the
barometric pressure.
Examples: Piezoelectric materials and tactile sensor
2.5 Liquid flow
 Examples: orifice plate and turbine flowmeter
Cont..
2.6 Liquid level
 Can be measured directly by monitoring the position of the liquid surface
or indirectly by measuring some variable related to the height.
 Examples:
Floats: A direct method of monitoring the level of liquid in a vessel is by
monitoring the movement of a float.
Differential pressure: measurement based on the measurement of differential
pressure.
2.7 Temperature sensor
 A device which gives temperature measurement as an electrical signal
 Examples: Bimetallic strips, Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
Thermistors, Thermodiodes and transistors
Cont..
3.According to principle of operation
Can be classified in to:
Resistive sensor
Capacitive sensor
Inductive sensor
Ultrasonic sensor
Cont…

3.1 Resistive Sensor

• A resistive sensor is a transducer or electromechanical device that
converts a mechanical change such as displacement into an electrical
signal that can be monitored after conditioning.
• Example: potentiometer, strain gages, Thermistor and etc.. are among
the most common in instrumentation

Thermistors
Cont..
3.2 Capacitive Sensor
• A capacitive sensor which generate a electrical signal according to the
input.
• Capacitive sensors can directly sense a variety of things motion,
chemical composition, electric field and, indirectly, sense many other
variables which can be converted into motion or dielectric constant,
such as pressure, acceleration, fluid level, and fluid composition
• Example: Capacitive proximity sensor
Cont..

3.3 Inductive Sensor

An inductive sensor is an electronic proximity sensor, which detects
metallic objects or any things without touching them.
Inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of
inductance, where a fluctuating current induces an electromotive force
(emf) in a target object
Application: metal
detector, traffic lights, car
washes
and etc.
Cont..
3.4 Ultrasonic Sensor
• An ultrasonic sensor operates by sending high-frequency sound waves
toward the target and measuring the time it takes for the pulses to
bounce back.
• The time taken for this echo to return to the sensor is directly
proportional to the distance or height of the object because sound has a
constant velocity.
Cont..

4. According to output signal

4.1. Analog Sensor: produce
continuous signals that are
proportional to the sensed parameter.
Example: analog tachometer etc…
4.2 Digital Sensor: produce digital
outputs that can be directly
interfaced with the digital controller.
Example: Digital tachometer etc…
Smart Sensor
• Sensors that combined with signal conditioning and microprocessors
are referred as smart sensors.

Smart sensors Applications

• Communications
• Computations
• Multi sensing
• Self calibration