MODULE 4

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT

An instrument may be defined as a device or a system which is designed to maintain a
functional relationship between prescribed properties of physical variables and must
include ways and means of communication to a human observer

The performance of a measurement system can be described in terms of static and

dynamic characteristics.

Functional elements of basic instrument:

Primary Sensing Element
Variable Conversion Element
Data Presentation Element

Primary Sensing Element: The measurand is first detected by primary sensor which
means that the measurand is converted into an electrical signal . This is done by a
transducer. Thus the first stage of a measurement system is known as detector
transducer stage.

Variable Conversion Element : The output of primary sensing element may be a voltage ,
frequency or some other electrical parameter. For and instrument to perform the desired
function , it may necessary to convert the output into a suitable form
Variable Manipulation Element : The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented
to it preserving the original nature of the signal. Manipulation here means a change in numerical
value of the signal

Before transmitting many times we have to perform certain operations on the signal . These
process may be linear like amplification, attenuation , integration etc. Also some non linear
processes like modulation, detection , sampling, filtering etc. are performed on the signal to bring
it to a desired form. This is called signal conditioning.

Data Transmission Element: When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated
, it becomes necessary to transmit data from one to another . The element that perform the
function is called Data transmission Element

Data presentation Element: The information about the quantity under measurement has to be
conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or
analysis purposes. This function is done by data presentation element.

In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed These devices may be analog or
digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. In case data is to be recorded,
recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera & TV equipment, CRT, printers may be used. For
control & analysis is purpose microprocessor or computers may be used. The final stage in a
measurement system is known as terminating stage’
FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS
 Indicating Function: Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods of
supplying information concerning the variable quantity under measurement . Most of
the time this information is obtained as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring
instrument. In this way, the instrument performs a function which is known as
indicating function,

Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written record usually on
a paper , of the value of the quantity under measurement against time or against
some other variable. Thus instruments performs a recording function
eg: potentiometer

Controlling Function : It is important in the field of industrial control process.

Information is used by the instrument or the system to control the original measured
quantity
APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Monitoring of Processes and operations

Control of Processes and operations

Experimental Engineering analysis

1. With neat block diagram, explain the functional elements of measuring

instruments
2. Explain the various classification of instruments with suitable examples
 Invariably measurement system especially in industrial, aerospace, and biological applications are
subjected to inputs which are not static· but dynamic in nature. i.e. the inputs vary with time.

Since the input varies from instant to instant, so does the output.

The behavior of the system under such conditions is described by the dynamic response of the system

The dynamic characteristic of any measurement system are:

(i) Speed of response
(ii) Lag
(iii) Fidelity
(iv) Dynamic error
 Speed of response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the ·
measured quantity.

Response Time : It is defined as the time required by an instrument or a system to settle to its final
steady position after the application of the input.

Lag: Measuring lag is defined as the delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the measured
quantity. This lag is usually quite small but it becomes highly important where high speed measurements
are required.

Measuring Lag is of two types :

(i) Retardation Type: In this case the response of the instrument begins immediately after a change in
the measurand has occurred
(ii) Time delay type: In this case the response of the system begins after a dead time after the
application of the input
 Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with
time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.

the total dynamic error of the instrument is the combination of its fidelity and the time lag
or phase difference between input and output of the system.

Fidelity : Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of ·the system to reproduce the
output in the same form as the input. Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is applied to
a system and if the output is also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to have 100
percent fidelity.
 Resistance are classified as follows:

Low Resistance : All resistances of the order of 1 ohm and under may be classified as low resistances.

Medium Resistances. This class includes resistances from l ohm upwards to about 100,000 ohm.

High Resistances. Resistances of the order of 100,000 ohm and upwards are classified as high resistances.

The different methods used for measurement of medium resistance are:

(i) Ammeter –Voltmeter Method (ii) Substitution Method

Wheatstone Bridge Method (iv) Ohmmeter Method

 A very important device used in the measurement of medium
resistance is the Wheatstone Bridge.

It has four resistive arms together with a source of emf (a battery) and
a null detector usually a galvanometer.

The Current through the galvanometer depends on the potential

difference between the points ‘c’ and ‘d’.

(Principle of Wheatstone bridge):

The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through the

galvanometer or when the potential difference across the galvanometer
is zero. This occurs when the voltage from point ‘c’ to point ‘a’ equals
to the voltage from point ‘d’ to point ‘a’.
 The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances are equal and no
current flows through the circuit.

Under normal conditions, the bridge is in the unbalanced condition where current flows through the galvanometer. The
bridge is said to be in a balanced condition when no current flows through the galvanometer.

This condition can be achieved by adjusting the known resistance and variable resistance.
The currents in the bridge, in a balanced condition, is expressed as follows:

Where E is the emf of the battery

 This is a well known equation for the balance of Wheatstone bridge

If three of the resistance are known , the fourth may be determined by

R is the unknown resistance, and the S is the standard arm

of the bridge and the P and Q are the ratio arm of the bridge.
 It is frequently desirable to know the galvanometer response to be expected in a bridge which is slightly
unbalanced, so that a current flows in the galvanometer branch of the bridge network. This may be used
for.:

(i) selecting a galvanometer with which a given unbalance may be observed in a specified
bridge arrangement,

(ii) determining the minimum unbalance which can be observed with a given galvanometer
in the specified bridge arrangement,

(iii) determining the deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.

Where Sv is the voltage sensitivity of galvanometer

1. Describe the principle of operation of Wheatstone bridge and derive the expression for unknown
resistance.

2. How to measure resistance using Wheatstone’s bridge?

Measurement of
1.Capacitance using Schering bridge
2. INDUCTANCE USING MAXWELL’S - WEIN BRIDGE

The Schering bridge is used for measuring

the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation
factor.
It is one of the most commonly used AC bridge.
The Schering bridge works on the principle of
balancing the load on its arm.
 When the bridge is in the balanced condition, zero current passes through the detector, which shows
that the potential across the detector is zero.

At balance condition

From previous slide

equations
 The difference of the angle from 90° is referred to as defect angle of the
capacitor. 

The tangent of the defect angle is called the dissipation factor of the capacitor.

In other words, the ratio of the resistive component and the reactive component
of a capacitor is the dissipation factor.

Hence, for this capacitor under measurement, we can write

 The dissipation factor obtains with the help of the
phasor diagram. The dissipation factor determines
the rate of loss of energy that occurs because of
the oscillations of the electrical and mechanical
instrument.

From previous slide equation

substitution
MEASURMENT OF INDUCTANCE USING MAXWELL’S - WEIN
BRIDGE
Maxwell’s Bridge
The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of the circuit is known as the
Maxwell bridge. It is the advanced form of the Wheatstone bridge.

The Maxwell bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the value

of unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with the known value or
standard value.

Two methods are used for determining the self inductance of the circuit. They are:

Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

In such type of bridges, the value of unknown resistance is determined by comparing

it with the known value of the standard self-inductance
Contd..
QUESTIONS
How to measure inductance using Maxwell’s Wein Bridge.

Draw a Maxwell’s bridge circuit and derive the condition for balance of the
bridge for finding the unknown inductance value.

What is the condition for balance of Schering Bridge circuit.