UNIT 1

1.Define Sensor, Transducer, Actuator

Ans. 1. Sensor:

- Definition: A sensor is a device that detects and measures physical

properties or changes in the environment and converts this
information into electrical signals or data.

- Example: Photoresistor (Light Sensor)

- Description: A photoresistor is a sensor that changes its

resistance based on the intensity of light. When exposed to light, its
resistance decreases, and this change is used to measure and detect
variations in light levels. Photoresistors are commonly used in
applications like automatic outdoor lighting systems.

2. Transducer:

- Definition: A transducer is a device that converts one form of

energy into another. In the context of sensors, it often converts
physical quantities into electrical signals.

- Example: Thermocouple

- Description: A thermocouple is a transducer that converts

temperature differences into electrical voltage. It consists of two
different metal wires joined at one end, and when there's a
temperature gradient along the wires, it produces a voltage that can be
measured. Thermocouples are widely used for temperature
measurement in industrial processes and scientific applications.

3. Actuator:

- Definition: An actuator is a device that receives a control signal

and produces a physical action or movement in response.
 - Example: Solenoid Valve

- Description: A solenoid valve is an actuator that uses an

electromagnet to control the flow of liquids or gases. When an
electrical current is applied, it generates a magnetic field that moves a
plunger, either allowing or blocking the flow of the fluid. Solenoid
valves are commonly used in applications like controlling water flow
in irrigation systems or regulating gas flow in industrial processes.

In short Sensors gather information, transducers convert one form of

energy into another, and actuators produce physical actions based on
control signals. Together, they form integral components of many
electronic and mechanical systems.

2.Classify the given sensors/transducers as Analog/digital,

Active/Passive- LVDT, Thermocouple, thermistor, RTD, Strain
gauge, LM 35, DHT 11, DHT 22, Load cell, pt100, NTC, PTC

Ans. Let's classify the given sensors and transducers based on their
analog/digital nature and active/passive characteristics:

1. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer):

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Active (requires an external AC excitation)

2. Thermocouple:

- Analog: Yes (generates analog voltage)

- Active/Passive: Passive
3. Thermistor:

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Passive

4. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector):

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Passive

5. Strain Gauge:

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Passive

6. LM35:

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Active

7. DHT11:

- Analog: Digital

- Active/Passive: Active
8. DHT22:

- Analog: Digital

- Active/Passive: Active

9. Load Cell:

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Passive

10. PT100:

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Passive

11. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor:

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Passive

12. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor:

- Analog: Yes

- Active/Passive: Passive
Q. What are the selection criteria for the sensors? OR how to
classify the sensors?

Ans. The selection criteria for sensors can be classified into various categories,
as outlined in the provided document:

1. Environmental Conditions: Sensors should operate effectively under a wide

range of environmental conditions such as temperature, corrosion, pressure, and
shocks .

2. Interfacing: Sensors should be compatible with different instruments for

interfacing .

3. Size and Weight: Sensors should have small size and less weight .

4. Performance Characteristics: When choosing a sensor for any application, the

input, transfer, and output characteristics should be considered .

5. Operating Range: Sensors should have a wide operating range and good
accuracy over the range .

6. Resolution: Sensors should have high resolution, but it should not be too high
to pick up very minute fluctuations that would require additional processing .

7. Speed Response: The time taken by the sensor to respond should be minimal,
and the response time should be very short .

8. Cost: The cost of the sensor should be low .

9. Nature of Output: The nature of output required from the sensor, whether
digital or analog, has to be considered while selecting a sensor .

10. Linearity: Sensor’s curve should be linear, and the percentage of deviation
from the best-fit linear calibration curve should be minimal .

In addition to the selection criteria, sensors can be classified based on their

types, such as:

- Temperature Sensor

- Proximity Sensor
- Accelerometer

- IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)

- Pressure Sensor

- Light Sensor

- Ultrasonic Sensor

- Smoke, Gas, and Alcohol Sensor

- Touch Sensor

- Color Sensor

- Humidity Sensor

- Position Sensor

- Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)

- Microphone (Sound Sensor)

- Tilt Sensor

- Flow and Level Sensor

- PIR Sensor

- Strain and Weight Sensor.

These classification criteria and selection considerations are crucial for choosing
the most suitable sensor for a specific application in a Mechatronics system.

Q. Case study based/application-based questions on sensor

selections (Refer skill

journal and notes)

Q. Explain the performance characteristics for the sensors.

Ans.
A. Input Characteristics:

1. Type and Operating Range:

- The sensor's operating range is crucial.

- Upper limit determined by sensor capabilities.

- Lower limit affected by potential errors.

2. Loading Effects:

- Ideally, the sensor should not impose any force, power, or energy on the
measured quantity.

B. Transfer Characteristics:

1. Transfer Function:

- Defines the relationship between input and output.

- qo = f(qi)

2. Error:

- Error occurs when the actual relationship deviates from \(q_o = f(q_i)\).

- Sensitivity (\(S\)) is the differential quotient \(\frac{dq_o}{dq_i}\).

- Scale factor is the inverse of sensitivity.

C. Transducer Response:

- Transducer response to environmental factors is crucial.

- Precautions needed to avoid disturbances like electromagnetic fields, shocks,

temperature changes, etc.

- Selection must guard against interference and modifying inputs.

D. Output Characteristics:

1. Type of Electrical Output:

 - Consider the nature of the electrical signal produced.

2. Output Impedance:

- Ideally zero; practically, as low as possible to minimize loading effects.

3. Useful Output Range:

- Limited by noise signals (lower end) and maximum useful input level (upper
end).

Q. What are the types of sensors connection?

Ans. 1. Wired Connections: Sensors can be connected to a system

using wires. This can be achieved by directly connecting the sensor to
the system's input ports or by utilizing a connector interface.

2. Wireless Connections: Sensors can also be connected wirelessly to

a system using technologies such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or Zigbee.
Wireless connections eliminate the need for physical wires and allow
for more flexible placement of sensors .

3. Analog Connections: Some sensors have analog outputs that can

be connected to analog input ports on a system. This typically
requires converting the analog signal to a digital signal using an
analog-to-digital converter.

4. Serial Connections: Sensors can be connected to a system using

serial communication protocols such as RS-232 or USB. This enables
reliable and high-speed data transfer between the sensor and the
system 5. I2C Connections: Some sensors utilize the I2C
(Inter-Integrated Circuit) protocol for communication. This allows
multiple sensors to be connected to the same bus and controlled using
a single set of wires 6. SPI Connections: Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI) is another communication protocol commonly used for
connecting sensors to a system. SPI enables high-speed data transfer
and can support multiple sensors.

Each type of sensor connection has its own advantages and

considerations, and the appropriate method of connection depends on
the specific requirements of the Mechatronics system and the
characteristics of the sensors being utilized.

Q. Draw two wire,3 wire ,4 wire RTD connection.

UNIT 2
Q.How to measure pressure using Bourdon’s tube and LVDT ?
Explain using neat diagram.
Ans. Measuring pressure using Bourdon's tube and LVDT involves converting the pressure into
a displacement, which is then measured using a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
Here's a step-by-step explanation along with a neat diagram:
1. Bourdon's Tube: Bourdon's tube is a curved tube that tends to straighten when pressure is
applied. The tube is connected to the fluid whose pressure is to be measured.
2. Pressure Application: When the fluid enters the Bourdon's tube, the pressure causes the tube
to straighten or deform. This deformation results in the movement of the free end of the tube.
3. Mechanical Linkages: The movement of the free end of the Bourdon's tube is then transmitted
through mechanical linkages to an LVDT.
4. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): The LVDT is a type of electrical displacement
transducer that converts the mechanical movement of the Bourdon's tube into an electrical
signal.
5. Output: The LVDT produces an electrical output that is proportional to the displacement of the
Bourdon's tube, which in turn is proportional to the applied pressure.
6. Measurement: The electrical output from the LVDT can be calibrated and used to indicate the
pressure on a scale or can be further processed for control or recording purposes.
Here's a simple diagram to illustrate the process:

```
Pressure
│
▼
Bourdon's Tube
│
▼
Mechanical Linkages
│
▼
Linear Variable
Differential Transformer
│
▼
Electrical Output
```

This setup allows for the accurate measurement of pressure using Bourdon's tube and LVDT,
providing a reliable method for various industrial and scientific applications

Q.How to measure Force/pressure using strain gauge? Explain

using neat diagram.
Ans. Measuring force or pressure using a strain gauge involves utilizing the principle of strain,
where the deformation of a material is proportional to the force applied. Here's an explanation
along with a neat diagram:
1. Application of Force/Pressure: The force or pressure to be measured is applied to the object or
structure to which the strain gauge is attached.
2. Deformation of Material: As the force is applied, the material to which the strain gauge is
attached undergoes deformation, causing the strain gauge to also deform.
3. Strain Gauge: The strain gauge is a device that changes its electrical resistance in response to
applied force or pressure-induced deformation. It consists of a thin wire or foil arranged in a
zigzag pattern to maximize the amount of material that is subjected to strain.
4. Measurement of Resistance Change: The deformation of the strain gauge results in a change
in its electrical resistance, which can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit or other
appropriate measurement circuits.
5. Output: The change in resistance is converted into an electrical signal that is proportional to
the force or pressure applied to the object.
6. Calibration and Measurement: The electrical signal can be calibrated and used to determine
the magnitude of the force or pressure applied

Q.Numericals on strain gauge

Q.expalin the working principle of ultrasonic sencor.

➔ Ans: Sound Wave Generation: The sensor emits ultrasonic waves (sound
waves at frequencies higher than 20 kHz) from a transmitter.
➔ Propagation: These waves travel through the air and hit an object in their path.
➔ Reflection: When the ultrasonic waves encounter an object, they bounce back
(reflect) towards the sensor.
➔ Reception: The sensor's receiver captures the reflected waves.
➔ Time Measurement: By measuring the time taken for the waves to return after
being emitted, the sensor calculates the distance to the object.
➔ Calculating Distance: Using the speed of sound in the air (approximately 343
meters per second or 1,235 kilometers per hour at room temperature), the
 sensor computes the distance to the object based on the time it took for the
waves to return.
➔ Output: The sensor provides an output, often in the form of an electrical signal
or digital data, representing the distance to the object.

Q.How to measure Force /Weight using load cell ? Explain using

neat diagram.

● Ans. Apply Force: Place the load cell where the force will be applied
(compression, tension, or shear).
● Deformation: The force causes the load cell to slightly deform.
● Generate Electrical Signal: This deformation changes the load cell's strain
gauges, producing a small electrical signal.
● Amplify and Convert: Amplify and convert this signal into a readable form
(analog or digital).
● Calibrate: Ensure accuracy by calibrating the load cell using known weights or
forces.
● Read Output: The load cell provides an output signal representing the force or
weight applied. Use this data for measurement or control purposes.

Q.Enlist the types and applications of load cell.

Ans. Compression Load Cells: Measure compression. Used in scales, batching,
tanks.
Tension Load Cells: Measure tension. Used in cranes, testing, hoists.
Shear Load Cells: Measure shear. Used in platforms, materials, automation.
Bending Beam Load Cells: Measure tension & compression. Used in conveyors,
medical devices.
Canister Load Cells: High-capacity in trucks, railroads, force.
Button Load Cells: Compact in medical, small tests, assembly.
Rope Tension Load Cells: Measure rope tension in cables, rigging.

Q.Explain the Piezoelectric Transducer Working Principle. State

the Piezoelectricity property.
 Ans. Piezoelectric materials create electricity when squeezed and change shape
when exposed to an electric field. This two-way process generates an electric charge
when stressed and deforms when charged. Here's the gist:

​ Property: Piezoelectric materials make electricity under pressure and deform

with an electric charge.
​ Working: Stress deforms them, separating charges and creating an electric
potential. Harvested as a signal using electrodes.
​ Use: Used in sensors, actuators, and devices like microphones due to their
ability to convert mechanical energy into electrical signals

Q.Explain the construction and working of tactile sensor.

Ans. Sensing Element: Tactile sensors can be made using various materials like
piezoelectric materials, conductive polymers, or resistive elements.

​ Outer Layer: Often covered with a flexible, protective outer layer that allows it
to interact with objects.
​ Electrical Connections: Equipped with electrical connections or leads to
transmit signals generated by touch or pressure.

Q.Compare Photo resistor(LDR),Photo transistor and Phtodiode

Ans.

Photo resistor(LDR) Photo transistor Phtodiode

● Functionality: The ● Functionality: ● Functionality: Phototransistors

resistance of an LDR
changes based on the
intensity of light it's
exposed to.
● Working Principle: In low
light, it has high
resistance, which
decreases as light
Phototransistors amplify light signals and
amplify light produce a larger electrical
signals and current in response to light.
produce a larger ● Working Principle: Light
electrical current in photons strike the base of the
response to light. transistor, increasing its
● Working Principle: conductivity and allowing
Light photons current flow.
 intensity increases. strike the base of ● Application: Used in light
● Application: Used in the transistor, meters, optical counters, and
light-sensitive circuits, increasing its various detection circuits.
automatic outdoor conductivity and ● Response Time: Faster than
lighting, or dark-activated allowing current LDRs but slower than
switches. flow. photodiodes.
● Response Time: Slower ● Application: Used ● Sensitivity: Higher sensitivity
response compared to in light meters, than LDRs, suitable for
photodiodes and optical counters, low-light conditions.
phototransistors. and various
● Directional Sensitivity: detection circuits.
Non-directional, reacts to ● Response Time:
ambient light Faster than LDRs
but slower than
photodiodes.
● Sensitivity: Higher
sensitivity than
LDRs, suitable for
low-light
conditions.

Comparison Summary:

● Sensitivity: Photodiodes > Phototransistors > LDRs.

● Response Time: Photodiodes > Phototransistors > LDRs.
● Directionality: Photodiodes and phototransistors can be more directional in
sensing light compared to LDRs.
● Applications: Each is suitable for different applications based on their
response time, sensitivity, and directionality requirements.

Q.Compare RTD ,Thermister and thermocouple

Ans.
RTD (Resistance Temperature Thermistor Thermocouple
Detector):

● Principle: Uses metals ● Principle: ● Principle: Two different

whose resistance changes Semiconductor-based, metal junctions generate
predictably with resistance changes with voltage with temperature
temperature. temperature. difference.
● Material: Often platinum, ● Material: Ceramic or ● Material: Two dissimilar
 nickel, or copper.
● Accuracy: High accuracy,
linear response.
● Temperature Range:
Moderate (-200°C to 600°C).
● Stability: More stable, less
affected by aging.
● Applications: Precision
industrial and laboratory
temperature measurements
polymer.
● Sensitivity: Highly
sensitive.
● Temperature Range:
Limited (-100°C to
300°C).
● Accuracy: Less accurate,
non-linear response.
● Applications: Consumer
electronics, automotive
temperature sensors,
HVAC.
metals.
● Temperature Range: Wide
(-200°C to 2300°C).
● Accuracy: Generally less
accurate, non-linear
response.
● Applications: Industrial
processes, ovens, furnaces
due to wide temperature
range.

Q.Draw and explain the construction, working and characteristics

of the following with neat diagram-

Ans.

1)Thermistor
Construction:

A thermistor is typically made of ceramic materials or polymers. It consists of a

small bead or disk-shaped semiconductor material with electrodes attached to its
surface.

Working:

● Temperature Sensitivity: Thermistors work based on the principle that their

electrical resistance changes significantly with temperature.
● Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC): Most thermistors are NTC devices,
meaning their resistance decreases as temperature increases.
● Response to Temperature Changes: When the temperature changes, the
thermistor's resistance changes accordingly.
● Electrical Connections: The electrodes on the thermistor allow it to be
connected to a circuit.

Characteristics:

● Temperature Sensitivity: Thermistors are highly sensitive to temperature

changes.
 ● Resistance Change: Their resistance changes nonlinearly with temperature,
with a rapid change in resistance over a small temperature range.
● Operating Range: They have a limited operating temperature range compared
to other temperature sensors.
● Accuracy: While highly sensitive, their accuracy might vary across different
temperature ranges.
● Applications: Widely used in applications requiring precise temperature
measurements, especially in electronics, automotive systems, and HVAC
systems.

2)Thermocouple

Construction:

● A thermocouple consists of two different metal wires joined together at one

end, forming a junction.
● Common materials for the wires include chromel (an alloy of nickel and
chromium) and alumel (an alloy of nickel, manganese, aluminum, and silicon).

Working:
 ● Seebeck Effect: Thermocouples operate based on the Seebeck effect, where a
voltage is generated when there's a temperature difference between the two
junctions of dissimilar metals.
● Voltage Generation: When the two junctions experience different
temperatures, a voltage is created across the ends of the wires due to the
temperature difference.
● Output Voltage: This voltage, known as the thermoelectric voltage, is
proportional to the temperature difference between the two junctions.

Characteristics:

● Temperature Range: Thermocouples cover a wide range of temperatures,

from very low to very high (from below -200°C to over 2300°C), depending on
the type.
● Robustness: They are robust and can withstand harsh environments.
● Response Time: Fast response to temperature changes.
● Accuracy: The accuracy of thermocouples varies depending on the type and
the temperature range.
● Non-linearity: Their output is not linearly proportional to temperature, requiring
calibration for accurate measurements across the temperature range.
● Applications: Widely used in industrial applications, ovens, furnaces, and
temperature measurement in various industries due to their wide temperature
range and durability

3)RTD

Construction:
 ● RTDs typically consist of a length of wire made from a pure metal or alloy with
a known and predictable resistance-temperature relationship.
● The most common material used is platinum (Pt), although other metals like
nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu) can also be employed.
● The wire is wound or formed into a coil or thin film and encapsulated within a
protective sheath or housing, often made of stainless steel or ceramic
materials.

Working:

● Resistance Changes with Temperature: RTDs operate on the principle that the
electrical resistance of certain metals changes in a predictable manner with
temperature variations.
● Linear Relationship: The change in resistance is relatively linear with
temperature changes within a specified range, especially with platinum-based
RTDs (PT100 or PT1000).
● Measurement Method: The RTD's resistance is measured using a known
current source or voltage across the RTD, and the resulting voltage or current
drop across the RTD is used to determine the temperature through calibration
or lookup tables.

Characteristics:

● Accuracy: RTDs offer high accuracy and stability in temperature

measurements, especially in comparison to thermocouples.
● Temperature Range: Typically used in moderate temperature ranges,
approximately -200°C to 600°C, although certain types and materials can
cover a broader range.
● Linearity: Generally more linear in response to temperature changes
compared to thermocouples and thermistors.
● Stability: Highly stable over time, less prone to drift or degradation in accuracy
compared to thermocouples and thermistors.
● Applications: Commonly used in precision temperature measurement
applications, industrial process control, HVAC systems, and scientific
laboratories.
4)Bourdon’s tube

Construction:

● Tube Structure: Bourdon tubes are typically C-shaped or helically wound

metallic tubes made of materials like brass, bronze, or stainless steel.
● Cross-Sectional Shape: The tubes can have oval or flattened cross-sections to
enhance their sensitivity to pressure changes.
● Attachment Points: One end of the tube is sealed, and the other end is
attached to the pressure source. As pressure changes, the tube deforms or
straightens.

Working Principle:

● Pressure Application: The pressure being measured enters the Bourdon tube
through the attached end.
● Deformation: The pressure causes the tube to straighten or deform from its
initial curved shape.
● Movement: As pressure changes, the free end of the tube moves, resulting in
mechanical movement proportional to the applied pressure.
5)Diaphragm
6)Capsule

7)Bellows

8)Strain gauge

Construction:
 ● Material: Strain gauges are made of thin wires or foil grids typically composed
of metals like constantan or nickel-chromium alloy.
● Mounting: They are mounted onto a flexible backing material, often made of
polymers, to adhere to the surface of the material undergoing deformation.
● Wiring: Connected to a circuit via lead wires to measure changes in electrical
resistance due to strain.

Working Principle:

● Strain Measurement: Strain gauges work based on the principle that the
electrical resistance of the wire or foil changes when subjected to strain or
deformation.
● Wire Resistance: As the material deforms, the strain gauge experiences a
change in length or shape, causing the wire's resistance to change.
● Wheatstone Bridge Configuration: Multiple strain gauges are often arranged in
a Wheatstone bridge circuit to measure small changes in resistance
accurately.
● Electric Signal: The deformation-induced change in resistance generates a
small electrical signal.

Characteristics:

● Sensitivity: Strain gauges are highly sensitive and can detect small changes in
strain or deformation.
● Accuracy: They offer high accuracy in measuring strain, especially when used
in Wheatstone bridge configurations.
● Range: Available in various configurations to measure different levels of
strain, from small deformations to higher levels.
● Temperature Compensation: Some strain gauges incorporate temperature
compensation to account for temperature-induced changes in resistance.
● Applications: Widely used in structural engineering, load testing, material
testing, and stress analysis in mechanical and civil engineering.
QExplain the working principle of Strain Gauge. Explain how
strain gauge is used to measure Pressure.

Working Principle of Strain Gauge:

​ Resistance Change: Strain gauges are composed of thin wires or foil grids
made of materials with high resistance, like constantan or nickel-chromium
alloy.
​ Deformation Sensitivity: When bonded to a material, the strain gauge
undergoes the same mechanical strain as the material it's attached to.
​ Resistance Change with Strain: As the material deforms due to applied force
or pressure, the strain gauge experiences a proportional change in length or
shape.
​ Resistance Change Measurement: This deformation alters the strain gauge's
electrical resistance. The change in resistance is directly proportional to the
amount of strain experienced by the material.

Using Strain Gauge for Pressure Measurement:

​ Attachment to Pressure-Sensitive Material: A strain gauge is bonded or

attached to a diaphragm or element that deforms under pressure. For
instance, in a pressure sensor, the strain gauge might be attached to a flexible
diaphragm.
​ Pressure Application: When pressure is applied, the diaphragm or element
deforms, causing strain in the attached strain gauge.
​ Resistance Change: The strain gauge experiences a change in resistance
proportional to the pressure-induced strain.
​ Bridge Circuit Configuration: Multiple strain gauges might be arranged in a
Wheatstone bridge configuration to measure small changes in resistance
accurately.
​ Measurement of Resistance Change: The change in resistance generates a
small electrical signal proportional to the applied pressure.
​ Signal Processing: The electrical signal is measured and processed to
calculate the pressure based on the known relationship between strain and
pressure.
Q.Enlist the important specifications of-

a) Piezoelectric transducer
Ans. Piezoelectric Transducer
• It is generally used to convert mechanical stress/pressure/force into
an electrical
signal
• Works on Piezoelectric effect
• The Piezoelectric transducer is an active transducer
Features and Specifications
•Impedance:≤500Ω;
•Voltage:≤30Vp-p;
•Operating temperature:-20°C~+60°C
•Storage temperature:-30°C~+70°C
•Low Soldering temperature
•Strain sensitivity: 5V/μƐ
•Material: Quartz (mostly used)

b) ultrasonic sensor

Ans.
Q.What is load cell? Explain the working principle of Load cell.

Ans. • A load cell is a transducer which converts force into a

measurable electrical output.
• Uses an Elastic member as the primary transducer and strain
gauges as secondary transducer
• Strain gauges may be attached to any elastic member
• When the strain gauge –elastic member combination is used
for weighing it is called a load cell
• Although there are many varieties of load cells, strain gage
based load cells are the most commonly used type.
The working principle:- load cell is based on the deformation of a
sensing element under an applied load. There are several types of load
cells, and each type employs a different mechanism to measure force.
Here, we'll discuss the working principle of a strain gauge load cell,
which is a common type.

Unit 3
Q. How to design the sensor? Explain the steps for sensor design
with suitable example.
Ans. Designing a sensor involves several key steps:
1. Define Requirements: Clearly outline the parameters, measurement
range, and environmental conditions for the sensor.
2. Select Sensing Principle and Type: Choose a sensing principle (e.g.,
resistive, capacitive) and a specific sensor type based on the application
needs (e.g., thermistor for temperature).
3. Determine Electrical Output: Decide on the type of electrical output
(e.g., voltage, current) and consider calibration and compensation
techniques for accuracy.
4. Materials and Construction: Choose suitable materials for the sensor's
physical structure, considering size, shape, and durability.
5. Prototype, Test, and Refine: Build a prototype, conduct thorough
testing, and iteratively refine the design based on performance results.
Document specifications and operating procedures.
Example Illustration: For a temperature sensor with an industrial
application (e.g., -50°C to 150°C, ±1°C accuracy), design a
thermistor-based sensor with voltage output. Consider materials suitable
for industrial environments, implement calibration methods, and iterate the
design based on testing results. Document specifications and operating
instructions.

Q.Draw and explain construction, working principle and

characteristics of LVDT

Ans.