1. Differentiate between Line Standard and End Standard of measurement.

Bring out suitable

examples under each category.
Ans :-

Characteristic Line Standard End Standard

Principle Length is expressed as the distance between two lines. Length is expressed as the
distance between two flat
parallel faces

Accuracy Limited to ± 0.2mm for high accuracy, scales have to be Highly accurate for
used in conjunction with magnifying glass or microscope measurement of close
tolerances up to ± 0.001 mm.-

Ease and time & Measurement is quick and easy The use of end standards
measurement requires skill and is time-
consuming.

Effect of wear Scale markings are not subject to wear. However, These are subjected to wear on
significant wear may occur on leading ends. Thus it may their measuring surfaces
be difficult to assume zero of scale as a datum.

Alignment It cannot be easily aligned with the axis of measurement. Can be easily aligned with the
axis of measurement

Manufacture and Simple to manufacture at a low cost. The manufacturing process is

cost complex and the cost is high

Parallax effect They ate subjected to parallax error They ate not subjected
to parallax error

Examples Scale (yard, meter etc.) Slip gauges, end bars, V-

caliper, micrometers etc.

2. Explain the construction and applications of vernier bevel protractor.

Ans :-

Vernier Bevel protractor consist of the following components.

 1. Main body
2. Base plate stock
3. Adjustable blade
4. Circular Plate with graduated vernier scale divisions.
5. Acute angle attachment

This is the construction of the Vernier Bevel Protractor

 The base plate(Stock) consisting of the Working edge will be mounted on the Main
body.
 And the Acute angle attachment is also mounted on the main body.
 This acute angle attachment can be readily attachable/detachable with the Locking
Nut.
 A circular plate having a vernier scale in it, also mounted on the Main body frame.
 This circular plate is carrying an adjustable blade which can travel along its length
and locked at any position with the help of the blade locking nut.
 The adjustable Blade one end is bevelled at angles 45° and the other end is bevelled
at 60°.
  This Main body frame itself having a graduated scale called the main scale.
 The circular plate can rotate freely on the main body.
 There is a slow-motion device which helps to control the rotation of the circular
plate on the main body.

Applications of vernier Bevel Protractor:

 Bevel Protractor is used to check V Blocks.
 It is used to check the inside beveled face of the ground surface.
 It is also used for measuring acute angles.

3. Explain how the flatness and parallelism of the two faces of slip gauge can be tested with
the help of any method based on the principle of interference of light.
ANS:-
4. Determine and sketch the limits of tolerance and allowance for a 42 mm shaft and hole pair
designated as H 8 - g10. The basic size lies in the range of 30 – 50 mm. The multipliers for
grades 8 and 10 are 25 and 64 respectively. The fundamental deviation for g shaft is (- 2.5
D0.34) microns. The standard tolerance unit is i = 0.45 (D) 1/3+ 0.001D in microns.
5. Explain NPL flatness interferometer with neat sketch and write its applications.

The NPL flatness interferometer

is used for checking flatness
between gauge surfaces.

a.Equal fringes on
parallel
b. Unequal fringes due to flatness error

ANS:-
Working

• The light from a mercury vapour lamp is condensed and passed through a green filter,
resulting in a green monochromatic light source.
• The light will now pass through a pinhole, giving an intense point source of monochromatic
light.
• Therefore, the collimating lens projects a parallel beam of light onto the face of the gauge to
be tested via an optical flat.
• This results in the formation of interference fringes.
• The light beam, which carries an image of the fringes, is reflected back and directed by 90°
using a glass plate reflector.
• In Fig. (a), the fringes are parallel and equal in number on the two surfaces. Obviously, the
two surfaces are parallel, which means that the gauge surface is perfectly flat.
• On the other hand, in Fig. (b), the number of fringes is unequal and, since the base plate
surface is ensured to be perfectly flat, the work piece surface has a flatness error.

6. Explain Talysurf with a neat sketch

ANS:- The Taylor Hobson Talysurf:-

Taylor-Hobson Talysurf is a stylus and skid type of instrument working on carrier modulating
principle. Its response is more rapid and accurate as comparred to Temlinson Surface Meter. The
measuring head of this instrument consists of a sharply pointed diamond stylus of about 0.002
mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a motorised
driving unit. In this instrument the stylus is made to trace the profile of the surface irregularities,
and the oscillatory movement of the stylus is converted into changes in electric current by the
arrangement as shown in Fig. The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about
the centre piece of E-shaped stamping. On two legs of (outer pole pieces)'the E-shaped stamping
there are coils carrying an a.c. current. These two coils with other two resistances form an
oscillator. As the armature is pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the stylus causes the
air gap to vary and thus the amplitude of the original a.c. current flowing in the coils is
modulated. The output of the bridge thus consists of modulation only as shown in FIGURE. This is
further demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the vertical displacement
of the stylus only.
7. Explain the use of optical flat for the measurement of convex and concave surfaces with
fringe patterns.
ANS:- The easiest and best way to test the flatness of a flat lapped or polished surface is with an
optical flat. Such surfaces are found on micrometers, measuring machines, gage blocks, snap
gages, ring seals, valve seats and precision flat lapped parts. The surface must be sufficiently
finished to reflect light; ordinary ground surfaces are too irregular to show light wave
interference bands. However, unless the material is extremely soft or porous, a few rubs on a
flat lap will smooth off the top of the grinding ridges and enable bands to be seen in
monochromatic light.
Convex or Concave :- The rule for determining whether a surface is concave or convex is as
follows: If the bands curve around the thin part of the wedge (contact or pressure point) the
surface is convex. If they curve around the thick part of the wedge the surface is concave.

Irregular Surface
Where the surface to be measured is irregular, the contact method of flatness testing is
recommended. Here the flat is placed in the most intimate possible contact with the work piece.

Amount of Flatness Error The amount that the bands curve, with reference to the distance
between them, indicates the amount of flatness error. In judging the amount of curvature,
imagine a line drawn across the surface from one end of any band to the other end of that same
band. If this line just touches the previous band the flatness error is 1 band . If it comes half way
between the two bands the error is 1/2 band .If the surface is out of flat two bands the line will
just touch the second band, if it is out 3 bands it will just touch the third band and so on. In
practice the imaginary line may be made real by aligning a piece of fine wire or thread across
the face of the monochromatic lights diffusion screen with the ends of the band, or by use of a
transparent straight-edge.

8. Explain different types of coordinate measuring machines with sketches

ANS:- TYPES OF CMMs
 The basic CMM has three perpendicular axis; x,y,z
 The physical configuration of CMMs vary widely, but they all provide a way to move a probe in
three axes with respect to workpiece
 Five basic configurations that are used more frequently
1. Cantilever 2. Bridge 3. Column 4. Horizontal arm 5. Gantry

@Cantilever type
  A vertical probe moves in the z-axis
 Carried by a cantilevered arm that moves in the y-axis
 This arm also moves laterally through the x-axis
 Advantage- a fixed table allows good accessibility to the workpiece
 Disadvantage- the bending caused by the cantilever design
 The cantilever design offers a long table with relatively small measuring ranges in the other two
axis.
 Suitable for measuring long, thin part

@Moving bridge type

 Most widely used  Has stationary table to support workpiece to be measured and a moving
bridge
 Disadvantage- with this design, the phenomenon of yawing (sometimes called walking) can
occur- affect the accuracy
 Advantage- reduce bending effect

@Fixed bridge type

 In the fixed bridge configuration, the bridge is rigidly attached to the machine bed
 This design eliminates the phenomenon of walking and provides high rigidity

@ Column type
 Often referred to as universal measuring machine instead of CMM
 The column type CMM construction provides exceptional rigidity and accuracy
 These machines are usually reserved for gage rooms rather than inspection
@ Horizontal arm type
 Unlike the previous machines, the basic horizontal arm-type CMM
 Also referred to as layout machine
 Has a moving arm, and the probe is carried along the y-axis
 Advantage- provides a large area, unobstructed work area
 Ideal configuration for measurement of automobile parts

@Gantry type
 The support of workpiece is independent of the x and y axes, both are overhead, supported by
four vertical columns rising from the floor
 This setup allows you to walk along the workpiece with the probe, which is helpful for
extremely large pieces.

9. What are various errors in the screw thread? explain

ANS:- Errors in Threads

     Errors in screw threads are related to the five elements of the screw threads. They are major
diameter, minor diameter, pitch diameter, pitch and thread angle. If any errors are taking place in
these five elements the produced screw is rejected. So, these elements are also be checked with
proper gauging system carefully. The threads are produced by a point cutting tools.
     The errors in major and minor diameter cause interference of the mating threads, less root
section, less wall thickness and poor contact of the flanks, which ultimately cause the weak in
strength of the component. The errors in effective diameter also cause the interference of the
flanks.
     The errors in pitch and thread angle also cause the progressive tightening of the mating parts
due to the interference of the flank surfaces.

     Let us discuss some important errors in thread forms. They are

1. Drunken error
2. Pitch errors 
    Drunken Error:  It is error due to the irregular form of helical groove on a cylindrical surface. In
this case pitch measured parallel to the axis is always same, but problem is with the thread is not
cut to its true helix.
Due to this flank surface will not be as a straight edge, it will be as curved form.

     Pitch errors: 

    The pitch errors are due to improper ratios of cutting tool velocity to rotating velocity of the
workpiece. these pitch errors are again classified as

Progressive pitch erros

Periodic pitch errors
Irregular errors

     Progressive errors: In this the pitch error results increasing of major or minor diameter or
decreasing of major or minor diameter. It means the error may either in increasing order or
decreasing order.
     Periodic errors: In this the pitch error causes the errors to repeat at certain time of interval.
     Irregular errors: These are the errors randomly take place on threads without any specific
reason. These are the combination of all the errors take place on threads.

10. Explain constant chord method in gear measurements

ANS:- Constant Chord Method.

, it is seen that both the chordal thickness and chordal addendum are dependent upon the
number of teeth. Hence for measuring a large number of gears for set, each having different
number of teeth would involve
separate calculations, inus tne proceaure Decomes laborious and time-consuming one.
The constant chord method does away with these difficulties. Constant chord of a gear is
measured where the tooth flanks touch the flanks of the basic rack. The teeth of the rack are
straight and inclined to their centre lines at the pressure angle as shown in Fig. 15.16.
Also the pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle of the gear and,- by definition, the
tooth thickness of the rack along this line is equal to the arc tooth thickness of the gear round its
pitch circle. Now, since the gear tooth and rack space are in contact in the symmetrical position
at the points of contact of the flanks, the chord is constant at this position irrespective of the
gear of the system in mesh with the rack.

This is the property utilised in the constant chord method of the gear measurement.
The measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord simplified the problem for all number of
teeth. If an involute tooth is considered symmetrically in close mesh with a basic rack form,
then it will be observed that regardless of the number of teeth for a given size of tooth (same
module), the contact always occurs at two fixed point A and B. AB is known as constant chord.
The constant chord is defined as the chord joining those points, on opposite faces of the tooth,
which make contact with the mating teeth when the centre line of the tooth lies on the line of
the gear centres. The value of AB and its depth from the tip, where it occurs can be calculated
mathematically and then verified by an instrument. The advantage of the constant chord method
is that for all number of teeth (of same module) value of constant chord is same. In other words,
the value of constant chord is constant for all gears of a meshing system. Secondly it readily
lends itself to a form of comparator which is more sensitive than the gear tooth vernier.
1. Explain one-wire, two-wire and three-wire methods

Ans:-
2. Explain Base tangent method in gear measurements
Ans:- Base Tangent Method In this method, the span of a convenient number of teeth is
measured with the help of a tangent
comparator. This uses a single vernier calliper and therefore has the following advantages
over gear tooth vernier, which uses two vernier scales:
1. Measurement does not depend on two vernier readings, each being a function of the
other. 2. Measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw but with the face.
Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled back and forth along a base circle,
as shown in Fig. C.12. Its ends sweep out opposed involutes A2 AA1 and C2 CC1 ,
respectively. Thus, the measurements made across these opposed involutes by span
gauging will be constant,
3. What are transducers and how they are classified? Explain any one
 transducer with neat diagram.
ans:- Device that converts one type of energy or signal into another Examples.. • A
microphone is a transducer that converts sound waves into electric impulse. • An
electric motor is a transducer that converts electricity into mechanical energy.

Types of Transducers •Electronic Transducers •Resistance Transducer •Variable

Reluctance Transducer •Capacitive Transducer •Piezo-Electronic Transducer
•Thermo-Electric Transducer •Photoelectric Transducer •Direct digital
Transducer •Fiber optic Transducer

Working Principle of Fiber Optic Sensors

Fiber optic sensors work based on the principle that light from a laser or any superluminescent
source is transmitted via an optical fiber, experiences changes in its parameters either in the
optical fiber or fiber Bragg gratings and reaches a detector which measures these changes.
A typical fiber optic sensor system consists of a fiber-optic cable connected to a remote sensor
or an amplifier. The fiber optic cable consists of a glass or plastic core surrounded by a layer
made of cladding material.

The difference in densities between the core and the layer enables the cables to act based on the
total internal reflection principle, which states that the light striking a boundary between two
components will be totally reflected without any loss in light energy. The reflected light is then
transmitted to a sensor/detector that converts the light energy into an electrical signal.

4. What are contact less electrical tachometers? Explain the working of any one with
neat sketch
ANS:- A Tachometer is a device which measures the speed of a rotating object like an
electric motor or a crank shaft of a vehicle engine. Speed of an electric motor is
determined by the number of revolutions made by the motor in one minute. In other
words, speed is measured in RPM (Revolutions per Minute). Here, in this project, we
designed a simple Non – Contact or Contactless Digital Tachometer using 8051
Microcontroller, which can measure speed with an accuracy of 1 rev/sec.

A Tachometer is basically used to measure angular speed of a motor. It can be mechanical

device with a warm gear and spindle arrangement or an electrical device which converts the
angular speed into electrical signal. The electrical tachometer in turn can be an AC tachometer
or a DC tachometer.

While a conventional tachometer is a contact tachometer, which can produce erroneous results
due to change in contact parameters, a Contactless digital tachometer is preferred which doesn’t
requires any contact with the device whose speed is to be measured.
It basically works on the principle of retro reflective scanning, wherein a light source device
like LED transmits light signal to the retro reflective target device which reflects the light,
which is in turn received by the light detector.

5. Explain the piezo electric transducer

ANS:-

Piezoelectric transducers are a type of electroacoustic transducer that convert the electrical

charges produced by some forms of solid materials into energy. The
word "piezoelectric" literally means electricity caused by pressure. An early application of
piezo transducer technology occurred during World War I with the use of sonar, which used
echoes to detect the presence of enemy ships. Small piezo transducers were also mostly
present in landline phones. They sat inside the ringer and helped to generate a noticeable
noise to alert people to incoming calls. In addtion, piezoelectricity finds a home inside quartz
watches as well, which is what keeps them so precise.

6. Explain the method of measuring strain by using strain gauges

ANS:-
You can measure strain using several methods, but the most common is with a strain gage. A
strain gage’s electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The
most widely used strain gage is the bonded metallic strain gage. The metallic strain gage
consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The
grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel
direction. The grid is bonded to a thin backing called the carrier, which is attached directly to
the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly
to the strain gage, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance.

A fundamental parameter of the strain gage is its sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively
as the gage factor (GF). GF is the ratio of the fractional change in electrical resistance to the
fractional change in length, or strain:

The GF for metallic strain gages is usually around 2. You can obtain the actual GF of a
particular strain gage from the sensor vendor or sensor documentation.

In practice, strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few millistrain (e x 10-
3). Therefore, to measure the strain, you have to accurately measure very small changes in
resistance. For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a strain of 500 me. A strain gage
with a GF of 2 exhibits a change in electrical resistance of only 2 (500 x 10-6) = 0.1%. For a
120 Ω gage, this is a change of only 0.12 Ω.

To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gage configurations are based on the
concept of a Wheatstone bridge. The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated in Figure 4, is a
network of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the
bridge.

Strain gages are configured in Wheatstone bridge

circuits to detect small changes in resistance.

The Wheatstone bridge is the electrical equivalent of two parallel voltage divider circuits.
R1 and R2 compose one voltage divider circuit, and R4 and R3 compose the second voltage
divider circuit. The output of a Wheatstone bridge, Vo, is measured between the middle nodes
of the two voltage dividers.

From this equation, you can see that when R1 /R2 = R4 /R3, the voltage output VO is zero.
Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced. Any change in resistance in any arm
of the bridge results in a nonzero output voltage. Therefore, if you replace R4 in Figure 4 with
an active strain gage, any changes in the strain gage resistance unbalance the bridge and
produce a nonzero output voltage that is a function of strain.

7. What are load cells? Explain

ANS:- • Transducer that is used to convert a force/pressure into an electrical signal
• Electrical output is in the order of a few millivolts and requires amplification by an
instrumentation amplifier for further use
• Load Cells are also called Load Transducer or Load Sensors • Force is measured in terms of
deflection or strain of elastic member (strain gauge type), increase in fluid pressure
(hydraulic type).
Types of load cells • Hydraulic load cells
• Pneumatic load cells
• Strain gauge load cells

1. Working Principle: • A load cell is made by bonding strain gauges to an elastic material.
• For accurate measurement, strain gauges are bonded to the position on the Elastic
material where the impact of the stress will be the largest.
• The strain gauge utilizes this principle and detects a strain by changes in electrical
resistance.
2.  Advantages: • Rugged and compact construction.
• No moving parts.
• Highly Accurate.
• Wide range of measurement, can be used for static and dynamic loading.
3. Disadvantages: • Mounting is difficult.
• Calibration is a tedious procedure.
4. Applications: • Dual Tank Level Controller
• Bag Filling Machine
• Tank / Silo / Hopper
• Food Packaging

8. Explain the method of measuring torque by using a torsion bar

dynamometer
9. Define thermocouple. List its advantages and disadvantages.
ANS:-
 A Thermocouple is a device used for the measurement of temperature. It can be even
considered as a sensor for the measurement of temperature. The device consists of two
dissimilar metals or semiconductors that contact each other in one are more points. The
junction in most of the cases are welded. Temperature is measured mostly at welded region.
One end is connected to the region where the temperature is to be measured. This end
considered as the hot region or the measuring region. The end is connected to the body of
known temperature. This end is considered as cold region or the reference junction. Thus the
thermocouple measures the temperature of the known region with respect to the known
junction.

 Thermocouples Advantages
Simple, Rugged
High temperature operation
Low cost
No resistance lead wire problems
Point temperature sensing
Fastest response to temperature changes

Disadvantages
Least stable, least repeatable
Low sensitivity to small temperature changes
Extension wire must be of the same thermocouple type
Wire may pick up radiated electrical noise if not shielded
Lowest accuracy
10. Explain dead weight gauge and manometers
ANS:- A dead weight GUAGE is an instrument that calibrates pressure by determining the
weight of force divided by the area the force is applied.

The formula for dead weight testers is pressure equals force divided by area of where force is
applied.
Dead weights are usually used for pressure gauge calibration as they come with high accuracy,
So they can be used as primary standard (as mentioned before).there are many types of them
depending on the application and they are operated with oil (hydraulic) or with air (pneumatic).

Dead weight testers are the basic primary standard for accurate measurement of pressure.

Dead weight testers are used to measure the pressure exerted by gas or liquid and can also
generate a test pressure for the calibration of numerous pressure instrument.

MANOMETER

Manometer is a device used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the
column of fluid with the same column or another of the fluid
The principle behind a manometer gas or liquid pressure gauge is extremely simple. Hydrostatic
equilibrium shows that the pressure when a liquid is at rest is equal at any point. For example, if
both ends of the U-tube are left open to the atmosphere then the pressure on each side will be
equal. As a consequence the level of the liquid on the left-hand side will be the same as the
level of the liquid on the right-hand side – equilibrium. However, if one end of the U-tube is left
open to the atmosphere and the other connected to an additional gas/liquid supply this will
create different pressures.

If the pressure from the additional gas/liquid supply is greater than the atmospheric pressure
this will exert a downward pressure on the measuring liquid. As a consequence, the liquid will
be pushed down on one side with the greater pressure causing the liquid to rise on the side with
the lesser pressure. The opposite would occur if the additional gas/liquid supply creates a lesser
pressure than the atmospheric pressure. In this instance the liquid would fall on the side of the
open section of the U-tube and rise on the side connected to the additional gas/liquid supply.

Perhaps the easiest way to explain this is the movement of a playground see-saw. If both parties
are the same weight and exerting no additional pressure on the see-saw it will balance perfectly.
However, if the weight or the pressure exerted on one end of the see-saw is greater than the
other, the heavier side will lower and the lighter side will rise.