MEASUREMENTS

AND
INSTRUMENTATION

Measurement of Non-electrical quantities Dr.J.KANAKARAJ

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INSTRUMENTATION
Introduction - Transducer
Basically transducer is defined as a device, which converts energy or information
from one form to another. These are widely used in measurement work because
not all quantities that need to be measured can be displayed as easily as others.
A better measurement of a quantity can usually be made if it may be converted to
another form, which is more conveniently or accurately displayed.

For example, the common mercury thermometer converts variations in temperature

into variations into the height of a column of mercury. Since the variation in the length
of the mercury column is rather simple to measure, the mercury thermometer
becomes a convenient device for measuring temperature.
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INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

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Transducer
Thus the transducer is a device, which provides a usable output
in response to specific input measured, which may be physical
or mechanical quantity, property or condition.

The transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical,

chemical, acoustic, thermal nuclear, or a combination of any two
or more of these.

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ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as
temperature, pressure, displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed
etc., but these quantities cannot be measured directly.

Hence such quantities are required to be sensed and changed

into some other form for easy measurement.

Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance,

inductance and capacitance etc. can be conveniently measured,
transferred and stored, and therefore, for measurement of non-
electrical quantities these are to be converted into electrical
quantities first and then measured.

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ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
The function of converting non-electrical quantity into electrical one is
accomplished by a device called the electrical transducer.

Basically an electrical transducer is a sensing device by which a physical,

mechanical or optical quantity to be measured is transformed directly, with a
suitable mechanism, into an electrical signal (current, voltage or frequency)
proportional to the input measurand.

The production of these signals is based upon electrical effects

which may be resistive, inductive, capacitive etc in nature.

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ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
The input versus output energy relationship takes a definite

reproducible function.

The output to input and the output to time behavior is predictable

to a known degree of accuracy, sensitivity and response, within

the specified environmental conditions.

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Basic Requirements Of a Transducer

Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety

arrangement should be provided for overload protection.

Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should

produce these characteristics in symmetrical way.

Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal when the same input
signal is applied again and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g.
temperature, pressure, humidity etc.

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Basic Requirements Of a Transducer
High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output signal should be good i.e. the ratio
of the signal to the noise should be high and the amplitude of the output signal
should be enough.

High Reliability and Stability. It should give minimum error in measurement for
temperature variations, vibrations and other various changes in surroundings.

Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be faithful to input when taken as a
function of time. The effect is analyzed as the frequency response.

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Classification Of Transducers
The transducers may be classified in various ways such as
 on the basis of electrical principles involved,
 methods of application,
 methods of energy conversion used,
 nature of output signal etc.

Primary and Secondary Transducers:

Transducers, on the basis of methods of applications, may be

classified into primary and secondary transducers.

When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical
phenomenon is converted into the electrical form directly then such a
transducer is called the primary transducer.

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Classification of Transducers
Primary and Secondary Transducers
For example a thermistor used for the measurement of temperature fall in this
category. The thermistor senses the temperature directly and causes the change
in resistance with the change in temperature.

When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its
output being of some form other than input signals given as input to a transducer
for conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of
secondary transducers.

For example, in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor

which converts pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement is
converted into an output voltage by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is a secondary
transducer.

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Active and Passive Transducers.
Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be classified
into active and passive transducers.

Active Transducers
Self-generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their output in the
form of electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source, are called the active
transducers.

Such transducers draw energy from the system under measurement.

Normally such transducers give very small output and, therefore, use of amplifier
becomes essential.

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Passive Transducers
Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance
changes with the change in input signal, are called the passive transducers. These
transducers require external power source for energy conversion.

In such transducer electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance causes a

change in voltages current or frequency of the external power source. These transducers may
draw source energy from the system under measurement.

Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducer falls in this category.

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According to Transduction Principle
The transducers can be classified according to principle used in
transduction.

• Capacitive transduction

• Electromagnetic transduction

• Inductive transduction

• Piezoelectric transduction

• Photovoltaic transduction

• Photoconductive transduction

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Analog and Digital Transducers

Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into

analog and digital transducers.

Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a

continuous function of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-
couple etc.

Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form of
pulse e.g. it gives discrete output.

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Analog and Digital Transducers
These transducers are becoming more and more popular now-a-days because of

advantages associated with digital measuring instruments and also due to the effect

that digital signals can be transmitted over a long distance without causing much

distortion due to amplitude variation and phase shift.

Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC (analog-digital converter)

is called a digital transducer.

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Selection of Transducers
The points to be considered in determining a transducer suitable for a specific
measurement are as follows:

Range. The range of the transducer should be large enough to encompass all
the expected magnitudes of the measurand.

Sensitivity. The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of
measured input in order to yield meaningful data.

Electrical Output Characteristics. The electrical characteristics are the output

impedance, the frequency response, and the response time of the transducer
output signal should be compatible with the recording device and the rest of the
measuring system equipment.

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Selection of Transducers
Physical Environment. The transducer selected should be able to withstand
the environmental conditions to which it is likely to be subjected while carrying
out measurements and tests.

Such parameters are temperature, acceleration, shock and vibration,

moisture, and corrosive chemicals might damage some transducers but not
others.

Errors. The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, or those
errors caused by environmental conditions of the measurement, should be
small enough or controllable enough that they allow meaningful data to be
taken.

However the total measurement error in a transducer activated system may

be reduced to fall within the required accuracy range by adopting the
following techniques.
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 Errors
Calibrating the transducer output against some known standards while in use
under actual test conditions. This calibration should be performed regularly as
the measurement proceeds.

Continuous monitoring of variations in the environmental conditions of the

transducer and correcting the data accordingly.

Controlling the measurement environment artificially in order to reduce possible

transducer errors. Artificial environmental control includes the enclosing of the
transducer in a temperature controlled housing and isolating the device from
external shocks and vibrations.

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 Advantages of Electrical Transducers
1. Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can be easily processed
(mainly amplified) and brought to a level suitable for output device which may be
an indicator or recorder.

2. The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power

3. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted, and processed for the
purpose of measurement.

4. With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems have become

extremely small in size, requiring small space for their operation.

5. No moving mechanical parts are involved in the electrical systems. Therefore

there is no question of mechanical wear and tear and no possibility of mechanical
failure.

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Disadvantages of Electrical Transducers
Ø The electrical transducer is sometimes less reliable than mechanical type because
of the ageing and drift of the active components.

Ø Also, the sensing elements and the associated signal processing circuitry are
comparatively expensive.

Ø With the use of better materials, improved technology and circuitry, the range of
accuracy and stability have been increased for electrical transducers.

Ø Using negative feedback technique, the accuracy of measurement and the

stability of the system are improved, but all at the expense of increased circuit
complexity, more space, and obviously, more cost.

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Resistive Transducers are those in which the resistance changes due to a change in some physical
phenomenon. The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the length of the conductor
can be used to measure displacement.

Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor or semiconductor changes
when strained. This can be used for the measurement of displacement, force and pressure.

The resistivity of materials changes with changes in temperature. This property can be used for the
measurement of temperature.

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Potentiometer(Displacement Transducer)
A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a resistance element provided with a sliding contact,
called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. Some have a
combination of both, with resistive elements in the form of a helix, as shown in Fig. They are known
as helipots.
Translatory resistive elements, as shown in Fig., are linear (straight) devices. Rotational resistive
devices are circular and are used for the measurement of angular displacement, as shown in Fig.
Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational devices which can be used for the measurement
of either translatory or rotational motion.
A potentiometer is a passive transducer since it requires an external power source for its operation.

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Potentiometer(Displacement Transducer) Resistive Transducer

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Potentiometer(Displacement Transducer) Resistive Transducer

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 Potentiometer(Displacement Transducer) Resistive Transducer

Types of Resistive Transducer:

1) Wire wound
2) Cermet
3) Hot moulded carbon
4) Carbon film
5) Thin metal film
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Loading effect in Resistance Potentiometer

The above eqn. shows the Non- Linear relationship between

output voltage, e0 and the input voltage ei.

As the ratio of Rm/Rp decreases, the non-linearity goes on increasing.

Thus in order to keep linearity the value of Rm/Rp should be as large
as possible.
When we have to measure the output voltage with a given meter,
the resistance of the potentiometer, Rp, should be as small as possible.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of resistive transducer

Advantages
The main advantages of the resistive transducer are as follows:
•The resistive transducer can be used to give very quick results.
•The resistive transducers are available in various sizes and have a considerably high of resistance.
•We can use both AC or DC for calculating the change in resistance.
•They are quite affordable and can be easily available in the market.
•W can use this transducer in various applications even when they are not a necessity.
•It can be used to give accurate results.

Disadvantages
Some of the major disadvantages of resistive transducers are:
•A lot of power is wasted in moving the sliding contacts.
•The sliding contacts can produce a lot of noise.

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Applications of a Resistive Transducer

• A resistive transducer is mainly used to measure the

temperature in various kinds of applications. When there is a
change in temperature, the temperature coefficient of the
resistive transducer changes which can be used to determine
the change in temperature.
• The resistive transducer can function as a potentiometer where
the resistance of the transducer can be varied by changing the
length of the conductor.
• A resistive transducer can be used in the calculation of the
displacement. When we apply strain on the resistor, the
resistance changes. This characteristic can be used in the
measurement of displacement, force, and pressure.

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Strain gauges
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses electric
resistance variation in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on wires.
It is a very versatile detector and transducer for measuring weight, pressure,
mechanical force, or displacement.

The construction of a bonded strain gauge shows a fine wire element looped
back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the
member undergoing stress. A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and
thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional area.
Bonded type strain gauges are three types, namely
1. Wire Strain Gauges
2. Foil Strain Gauge
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge
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Wire Strain Gauges has three types namely,
1. Grid type
2. Rossette type
3. Torque type
4. Helical type

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Strain gauges

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Strain gauges

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Strain gauges

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Semiconductor strain gauges depend for their
action upon the piezo resistive effect, i.e.
change in value of the resistance due to change
in resistivity, unlike metallic gauges where
change in resistance is mainly due to the change
in dimension when strained. Semiconductor
materials such as germanium and silicon are
used as resistive materials.

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Characteristics of a resistance wire strain gauge
 The Strain Gauge Transducer Types should have a high value of gauge factor (a

high value of gauge factor indicates a large change in resistance for particular
strain, implying high sensitivity).
 The resistance of the strain gauge should be as high as possible, since this
minimizes the effects of undesirable variations of resistance in the measurement
circuit. A high resistance value results in lower sensitivity.
 The strain gauge should have a low resistance temperature coefficient.
 The strain gauge should not have hysteresis effects in its response
 The variation in resistance should be a linear function of the strain.
 Strain gauges are frequently used for dynamic measurements and hence their
frequency response should be good.
 Leads used must be of materials which have low and stable resistivity and
lowresistance temperature coefficient. 43
https://training.dewesoft.com/online/course/strain-measurement

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Strain gauges

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The Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.

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Thus, the Gage Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the
semiconductor type strain gages have a very large Gage Factor, in the range of 100-150.
This is attained due to dominant piezo-resistance property of semiconductors.

The commercially available strain gages have certain fixed resistance values, such as,
120Ω, 350 Ω, 1000 Ω, etc. The manufacturer also specifies the Gage Factor and the
maximum gage current to avoid self-heating (normally in the range 15 mA to 100 mA).

The choice of material for a metallic strain gage should depend on several factors. The
material should have low temperature coefficient of resistance. It should also have low
coefficient for thermal expansion.

Judging from all these factors, only few alloys qualify for a commercial metallic strain gage.
They are: Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gage Factor between 2.0 to 2.2 Nichrome (80% Ni,
20% Co): Gage Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
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Unbonded Metal Strain Gauge

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 Variable Inductance type Transducer

Variable Inductance type Transducers work on one of the

following three principles :

(i) Variation of Self-Inductance

(ii) Variation of mutual Inductance and

(iii) Production of eddy current

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 Variable Inductance type Transducer
We know very well that self inductance of a coil is given by

Also we know that reluctance R is given by

where μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil.

Where, G = A/l and called geometric form factor.

A = area of cross-section of coil. l = length of the coil.

So, we can vary self inductance by

i) Change in number of turns, N,

ii) Changing geometric configuration, G,
iii) Changing permeability

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Change of Mutual Inductance of Inductive Transducer
Here transducers, which work on change of mutual inductance principle, use multiple
coils. We use here two coils for the sake of understanding. Both coils have their self
inductance as well.

So let‟s denote their self inductance by L1 and L2. Mutual inductance between these
two coils is given by

Thus mutual inductance can be changed by varying self inductance or by varying

coefficient of coupling, K. The methods of changing self inductance we already
discussed.
Now coefficient of coupling depends on the distance and orientation between two
coils.
Thus for the measurement of displacement we can fix one coil and make other
movable which moves with the source whose displacement is to be measured. With
the change in distance in displacement coefficient of coupling changes and it causes
the change in mutual inductance. This change in mutual inductance can be calibrated
with the displacement and measurement can be done.
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Production of Eddy Current of Inductive Transducer

We know that when a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating
current, a circulating current is induced in the plate called “EDDY CURRENT”. This
principle is used in such type of inductive transducers. 𝑵𝝓
L=
𝑰
Actually what happens? When a coil is placed near to coil carrying alternating
current, a circulating current is induced in it which in turn produces its own
flux which try to reduce the flux of the coil carrying the current and hence
inductance of the coil changes. Nearer the plate is to the coil, higher will be
eddy current and higher is the reduction in inductance and vice versa.

Thus inductance of coil varied with the variation of distance between coil and
plate. Thus the movement of the plate can be calibrated in terms of
inductance change to measure the quantity like displacement.
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Linear Variable differential Transformer (LVDT)

Series-opposition
connection 59
Construction of LVDT
Main Features of Construction are,
The transformer consists of a primary winding P
and two secondary winding S1 and S2 wound
on a cylindrical former(which is hollow in nature
and will contain core).
Both the secondary windings have equal number of turns
and are identically placed on the either side of primary
winding
The primary winding is connected to an AC source
which produces a flux in the air gap and voltages are
induced in secondary windings.
A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and
displacement to be measured is connected to the iron
core.
The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in reducing harmonics and high
sensitivity of LVDT.
The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing because it will provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding.
The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted output is the
difference of the voltages of two windings, i.e., they are connected in series-opposition.
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Principle of Operation and Working
As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages are produced
in the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is
e2. The secondaries are connected in Series-opposition mode. So the differential output is,
eout = e1 - e2
This equation explains the principle of Operation of LVDT.

CASE I When the core is at null position (for no displacement)

When the core is at null position then the flux linking with both
the secondary windings is equal so the induced emf is equal in
both the windings.
So for no displacement the value of output eout is zero as e1
and e2 both are equal. So it shows that no displacement took
place.

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LVDT

Now three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains the working
of LVDT are discussed below as,

CASE II
When the core is moved to left of null position (position A) In the this case the flux
linking with secondary winding S1 is more as compared to flux linking with S2. Due
to this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is positive.

CASE III
When the core is moved to right of Null position (position B) In the this case the
flux linking with secondary winding S2 is more as compared to flux linking with S1.
In this case magnitude of e2 will be more as that of e1. Due to this output eout will
be negative.
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Output VS Core Displacement
A linear curve shows that output voltage varies linearly
with displacement of core.

Some important points about

magnitude and sign of voltage
induced in LVDT

The amount of change in voltage

either negative or positive is
proportional to the amount of
movement of core and indicates
amount of linear motion.

By noting the output voltage

polarity the direction of motion can be
determined

The output voltage of an LVDT is

linear function of core displacement .
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Advantages of LVDT
High Range - The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of
displacement.they can used for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25mm to
250mm

No Frictional Losses - As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.

High Input and High Sensitivity - The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn‟t need
any amplification.the transducer posseses a high sensitivity which is typically about
40V/mm.

Low Hysteresis - LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent
under all conditions

Low Power Consumption - The power is about 1W which is very as compared to

other transducers.

Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals - They convert the linear displacement to

electrical voltage which are easy to process
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Disadvantages of LVDT

LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup to protect
them from stray magnetic fields.
They are affected by vibrations and temperature.

It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared than any other inductive
transducers.

Applications of LVDT

1. They are used in applications where displacements ranging from fraction of mm to

few cm are to be measured. The LVDT acting as a primary Transducer converts the
displacement to electrical signal directly.

2. They can also acts as the secondary transducers. E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as
a primary transducer and covert pressure into linear displacement then LVDT converts
this displacement into electrical signal which after calibration gives the value of the
pressure of fluid.
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Capacitive Transducers
A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from
one another by a nonconductor (dielectric).
When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is
capable of storing an electric charge. The storage capability of a capacitor is
measured in farads.
The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation
for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor as shown in Fig.
Where,
A = Overlapping area of plates; m2,
d = Distance between two plates; m,
= Permittivity (dielectric constant); F/m.

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Capacitive Transducers
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high.
This fact calls for a careful design of the output circuitry. The capacitive
transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the
capacitor.

The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in

capacitance of the capacitor. This change in capacitance could be
caused by change in overlapping area A of the plates, change in the
distance d between the plates and change in dielectric constant.

In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical
variables, such as, displacement, force or pressure. Variation in
capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the
plates changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels.

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Capacitive Transducers
Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of
linear displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig a and
fig b.

i) Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

ii) Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
iii) Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates

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Capacitive Transducers

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Two Content Layout with Table
Class Group A Group B › First bullet point here
Class 1 82 95 › Second bullet point here
Class 2 76 88 › Third bullet point here
Class 3 84 90

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• Task 1
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• Task 1
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