MEASUREMENTS

AND
INSTRUMENTATION

Dr.J.KANAKARAJ
 Digital Instruments
Definition: The instruments that are used to express the
measuring quantity in numeric format is known as
Digital Instruments. A digitized information is somewhat
easy to be handled and transmitted thus widely preferred nowadays.

Quantization is the basis of working of a digital instrument. It is an act of

transforming an analog signal into its digital form. Digital instruments are
composed of logic circuits that carry out measurement of the quantities.
Due to several advantages of digital instruments such as high speed, errorless results,
better resolution and greater accuracy over analog instruments, the popularity of digital
instruments are increasing rapidly.
Analogue Instruments
 DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
1.High Input Impedance: PMMC meter has a sensitivity of 20 kΩ/V with a
0 – 0.5 V range and has an input resistance of only 10 kΩ at its 0.5 V range.
So this draws a full scale current of 50 mA which loads the measurand
considerably. The electronic voltmeter (EVM), on the other hand, can have
input resistances from 10 MΩ to 100 MΩ with the input resistance remaining
constant over all ranges.
2.Detection of Low Level Signals: Electronic voltmeter avoids the loading
errors by supplying the power required for measurement by using external
circuits like amplifiers.
3.Low Power Consumption: Electronic voltmeters utilize the power
required for operating the instrument from an auxiliary source. Thus the
power drawn from the circuit under measurement is very small or even
negligible. This can be interpreted as the voltmeter circuit has very high
input impedance. This feature of electronic voltmeter is indispensable for
voltage measurement in many high impedance circuits such as
encountered in communicating equipments.
4.High Frequency Range: The most important feature of electronic
voltmeters is that their response can be made practically independent
of frequency within extremely wide limits. Some electronic voltmeters
permit the measurement of voltage from direct current to frequency of
the order of hundreds of MHz. the high frequency range may also be
attributed to low input capacitance of most electronics devices. The
capacitance may be of the order of a few pF.

5.Better Resolution Resolution (smallest reading perceivable) of

analog instruments is limited by space on the scale markings and also
by ability of the human operator to read such small deviations in scale
markings. Whereas in a digital instrument, the measured value is
displayed directly on a LED or LCD panel whose resolution is solely
determined by resolution of the analog to digital converter (ADC). Use
of 12 bit (or higher) ADC can make a digital instrument to read as small
as 0.001 V in 0 – 5 V range.
6.Storage Facility Digital instruments have an additional optional
advantage that their readings can be stored for future reference.

7.Accuracy Since there are very few moving parts (or even no moving
parts) in the digital instruments, in general they are usually more
accurate than the analog instruments. Even the human error involved in
reading these instruments is very less, which adds to the accuracy of
digital instruments. However, overall accuracy of a digital instrument will
largely depend on accuracies of the large number of individual
electronic components used for building the instrument.
In addition, digital instruments are more user friendly as they are easy
to read, takes up smaller space, suitable for mass production, and also
sometimes less costly.
 Disadvantages of Digital Instruments
1. Effects of noise is more predominant on digital instruments than analog
instruments.
Analog instruments, due to inertia of its moving parts, normally remain
insensitive to fast varying noise, while digital instruments continue to show
erratic variations inpresence of noise.
2. Analog instruments have higher overload capacity than digital instruments.
The sensitive electronic components used in digital instruments are more
prone to damage in case of even momentary overloads.
3. Digital instruments can sometimes loose its reliability and tend to indicate
erratic values due to faulty electronic circuit components or damaged display.
4. Digital instruments and their internal electronic components are very much
sensitive to external atmospheric conditions. In case of high humidity and
corrosive atmosphere the internal parts may get damaged and indicate the
faulty values. Temperatures can cause the chars. of the electronic devices to
vary over time.
Electronic voltmeter- High Impedance DC Voltmeter
Digital meter
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
A digital multimeter is an electronic(Digital) instrument which can measure
very precisely the dc and ac voltage, current (dc and ac), and resistance. All
quantities other than dc voltage is first converted into an equivalent dc voltage
by some device and then measured with the help of digital voltmeter.
 DIGITAL MULTIMETER
Measurement of voltage, current and resistance is achieved
using appropriate circuits to produce a voltage proportional to the
quantity to be measured.
In simple DMMs alternating signals are rectified as in analogue
multimeters to give its average value which is multiplied by 1.11
to directly display the r.m.s. value of sine waves
More sophisticated devices use a true r.m.s. converter which
accurately produce a voltage proportional to the r.m.s. value of
an input waveform
Ramp-Type DVM - voltage to time conversion
Ramp-Type DVM - voltage to time conversion

(a) Voltage-to-time conversion

 Integrating-Type DVM - (Voltage to Frequency Conversion)
This voltmeter employs an integration technique which uses a voltage to
frequency conversion.

The voltage to frequency (VIF) converter functions as a feedback control

system which governs the rate of pulse generation in proportion to the
magnitude of input voltage.

Actually when we employ the voltage to frequency conversion techniques,

a train of pulses, whose frequency depends upon the voltage being
measured, is generated.

Then the number of pulses appearing in a definite interval of time is

counted. Since the frequency of these pulses is a function of unknown
voltage, the number of pulses counted in that period of time is an indication
of the input (unknown) voltage.
 Integrating-Type DVM - (Voltage to Frequency Conversion)
Output voltage of integrator E = -Ei / RC*t .
Thus if a constant input voltage E is applied, an output voltage
E is produced which rises at a uniform rate and has a polarity
opposite to that input voltage.
In other words, it is clear from the above relationship that for a
constant input voltage the integrator produces a ramp output
voltage of opposite polarity.
The basic block diagram of a typical integrating type of DVM is
shown in next slide.
The unknown voltage is applied to the input of the integrator, and the
output voltage starts to rise.
• The slope of output voltage is determined by the value of input voltage
• This voltage is fed a level detector, and when voltage reaches a certain
reference level, the detector sends a pulse to the pulse generator gate.
• The level detector is a device similar to a voltage comparator. The output
voltage from integrator is compared with the fixed voltage of an internal
reference source, and, when voltage reaches that level, the detector
produces an output pulse.
It is evident that greater then value of input voltage the sharper will be the slope of
output voltage and quicker the output voltage will reach its reference level.
• The output pulse of the level detector opens the pulse level gate, permitting pulses
from a fixed frequency clock oscillator to pass through pulse generator.
• The generator is a device such as a Schmitt trigger that produces an output pulse of
fixed amplitude and width for every pulse it receives.
• This output pulse, whose polarity is opposite to that of and has greater amplitude,
is fedback of the input of the integrator.
• Thus no more pulses from the clock oscillator can pass through to trigger the pulse
generator.
When the output voltage pulse from the pulse generator has passed, is
restored to its original value and starts its rise again.
• When it reaches the level of reference voltage again, the pulse
generator gate is opened.
• The pulse generator is trigger by a pulse from the clock generator and
the entire cycle is repeated again.
• Thus, the waveform of is a saw tooth wave whose rise time is
dependent upon the value of output voltage and the fail time is
determined by the width of the output pulse from the pulse generator.
Thus the frequency of the saw tooth wave is a function of the value of the

voltage being measured.

• Since one pulse from the pulse generator is produced for each cycle of the

saw tooth wave, the number of pulses produced in a given time interval and

hence the frequency of saw tooth wave is an indication of the voltage being

measured.
Integrating-Type DVM - (Voltage to Frequency Conversion)
Integrating-Type DVM - (Voltage to Frequency Conversion)
Integrating-Type DVM - (Voltage to Frequency Conversion)
Integrating-Type DVM - (Voltage to Frequency Conversion)
Advantages of Digital Voltmeter
1.DVM provides numerical readouts that eliminate observational errors.
Thus providing better readability.

2.DVM offers better accuracy and versatility as compared to analogue

voltmeters.

3.DVM has a greater speed of taking voltage readings as compared to

analogue instruments.

4.The output of DVM can be fed to memory devices for further

computations.

5.The decreased size of DVM increases the portability if the instrument.

DVM offers an accuracy of 0.5% + 1 digit and the operating temperature
range is -5 ⁰C to 55 ⁰C.
Function Generator
Function Generator
The frequency controlled voltage is used to regulate two current
sources namely upper current source and lower current source.
The upper current source supplies constant current to an
integrator.
The output voltage of integrator then increases linearly with time.
If the current, charging the capacitor increases or decreases, the
slope of output voltage increases or decreases respectively.
Hence this controls frequency.
 Function Generator
The voltage comparator multivibrator circuit changes the state of the
network when the output voltage of integrator equals the maximum
predetermined upper level. Because of this change in state, the
upper current source is removed and the lower current source is
switched ON.
This lower current source supplies opposite current to the integrator
circuit. The output of integrator decreases linearly with time.
When this output voltage equals maximum predetermined upper level
on negative side, the voltage comparator multivibrator again changes
the condition of the network by switching OFF the lower current
source and switching ON the upper current source.
Function Generator
The output voltage of the integrator has triangular waveform.
The frequency of this triangular waveform is determined by
the magnitudes of the currents supplied by upper current
source and lower current source.
To get square wave, the output of the integrator is passed
through comparator. The voltage comparator delivers square
wave output voltage of same frequency as that of input
triangular waveform.
The sine wave is derived from triangular wave. The triangular
wave is synthesised into sine wave using diode resistance
network. In this shaper circuit, the slope of triangular wave is
changed as its amplitude changes. This results in a sine
wave with less than 1% distortion.
 Spectrum Analyser

RF spectrum analyzers are test instruments used to look at

signals in the frequency domain, i.e. a plot of signal
strength against frequency.
 What is Spectrum Analyzer
Spectrum Analyzer is fundamentally a testing instrument that measures various parameters
in a circuit or in a system at radio frequency range. A normal testing equipment would
measure the unknownquantity based on its amplitude with respect to time.
For example, a voltmeter would measure the voltage amplitude based on the time domain.
So we will get a sinusoidal curve of AC voltage or a straight line for DC voltage.
But a spectrum analyzer would measure the quantity in terms of amplitude versus
frequency.
A measuring instrument that
displays an electrical signal
according to its frequency.

Each frequency component

contained in the input signal is
displayed as a signal level
corresponding to that frequency.
Spectrum Analyser
 Spectrum Analyser
As shown in the diagram, the spectrum analyzer measures the amplitude in
the frequency domain. The high peak signals represent the magnitude, and in
between, we have noise signals also.

We can use the spectrum analyzer to eliminate the noise signals and make the
system more efficient. Signal to noise cancellations factors (SNR) is one of the
important features nowadays for electronic applications.

For example, headphones come with a noise cancellation aspect. For testing
such equipment, spectrum analyzers are used.
 Spectrum Analyser
A spectrum analyzer is a wide band, very sensitive receiver. It works on
the principle of "super-heterodyne receiver" to convert higher
frequencies (normally ranging up to several 10s of GHz) to measurable
quantities.
The received frequency spectrum is slowly swept through a range of
pre-selected frequencies, converting the selected frequency to a
measurable DC level (usually logarithmic scale), and displaying the
same on a CRT.
The received signal strength (y-axis) against frequency (x-axis) is
displayed on a screen.
 Spectrum Analyser
Obviously, signals that are weaker than the background noise could
not be measured by a spectrum analyzer.

For this reason, the noise floor of a spectrum analyzer in combination

with RBW is a vital parameter to be considered when choosing a
spectrum analyzer.

The received signal strength is normally measured in decibels (dbm).

(Note that 0 dBm corresponds to 1 mWatt of power on a logarithmic
scale).
Spectrum Analyser
The primary reasons for measuring the power (in dBm) rather
than voltage in Spectrum Analyzers are the low received signal
strength, and the frequency range of measurement.

Spectrum analyzers are capable of measuring the frequency

response of a device at power levels as low as -120dBm.

These power levels are encountered frequently in microwave

receivers, and spectrum analyzers are capable of measuring the
device characteristics at that power levels.
 Spectrum Analyser
The working of superheterodyne spectrum analyzer :
 The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to input attenuator. If the signal amplitude is too
large, then it can be attenuated by an input attenuator.
 Low Pass Filter (LPF) allows only the frequency components that are less than the cut-off
frequency.
 Mixer gets the inputs from Low pass filter and voltage tuned oscillator. It produces an output,
which is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that are applied to it.
 IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, i.e. the output of mixer. The
amplified IF signal is applied to detector.
The output of detector is given to vertical deflection plate of CRO. So, CRO displays the
frequency spectrum of RF signal on its CRT screen.
So, we can choose a particular spectrum analyzer based on the frequency range of the signal that is
to be analyzed.
 Spectrum Analyser
Spectrum analyzer displays signals in the frequency domain
In this way it is possible to measure the frequencies of signals, and
also check their levels

By looking at the amplitudes of signals at different frequencies it is

possible to measure the amplitudes of these signals, find what
signals are present and the like.
Spectrum Analyser
Spectrum analysers normally use a linear scale for the frequency on the
horizontal or x-axis, but they normally use a logarithmic scale for the
amplitude on the vertical or y-axis. By using a logarithmic or decibel
scale for the amplitude scale, it is possible to see signals with large
differences in amplitude.

Signals being viewed on a spectrum analyzer may differ by 60dB, 70 dB

or more. Using a logarithmic scale is the only way to see these signals
on the same screen. For some applications it may be necessary to use
a linear amplitude scale, and often there is a switch to accomplish this.
 Spectrum Analyser
The overall spectrum of a modulated signal to see whether it is wide
enough or too narrow, etc. If it is too wide then it could cause interference
to users in adjacent channels.

To investigate whether any spurious or unwanted signals are present.

These signals could cause interference to users on other frequencies is
signals are transmitted.

To find out whether a signal is on the right frequency, and not in another
band.
To investigate general problems with a signal. Often it can just help looking
at a signal to see what a problem is.

With RF signals a spectrum analyzer can prove to be the eyes for the
person investigating the problem.

Sometimes spectrum analyzers can be used to measure power, although

power meters may be more applicable in some circumstances.
Spectrum Analyser
•Spectrum analysers can also be used to measure the phase noise on a signal.
This can be achieved provided that the pose noise on the spectrum analyzer
local oscillator is typically 10dB better than that of the oscillator under test.
These test instruments are one of the best ways to measure phase noise
provided the spectrum analyzer local oscillator has a sufficiently low level of
phase noise.

•Another application for these test instruments is that of measuring the noise
figure of an item. Although the test method does involve a number of stages, it
can be undertaken relatively easily.

•Spectrum analysers are often used when undertaking EMI & EMI
(electromagnetic interference and electromagnetic compatibility)
measurements. The analyzer can be used to locate the frequency and nature of
the signal that may be causing an issue.
Spectrum Analyser
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Analyzer
It has many advantages, as it measures the spectral quantity in the signal on
the radio frequency range. It also provides a number of measurements. The
only disadvantage is its cost, which is higher as compared to the usual
conventional meters.

Applications of Analyzer
A spectrum analyzer which is fundamentally used for the testing purpose can
be used to measure a variety of quantities. All these measurements are made
at the radio frequency level.
Frequently measured quantities using spectrum analyzer are-
• Signal levels– The amplitude of the signal based on the frequency domain
can be measured using the spectrum analyzer
•Phase Noise – As the measurements are done on the frequency domain
and the spectral content is measured, the phase noise can be easily
measured. It appears as ripples in the output of the cathode ray oscilloscope.
Spectrum Analyser
Harmonic distortion – This is a major factor to be determined for the quality of
the signal. Based on harmonic distortion, the total harmonic distortion (THD) is
calculated to evaluate the power quality of the signal. The signal must be saved
from sags and swells. Reduction in harmonic distortion levels is even important to
avoid unnecessary losses.
Intermodulation distortion– While modulating the signal, based on the
amplitude (Amplitude modulations) or frequency (frequency modulation)
distortions are caused in the intermediate level. This distortion must be avoided to
have a processed signal. For this, a spectrum analyzer is used to measure the
intermodulation distortion. Once the distortion is reduced using external circuits,
the signal can be processed.
 Spectrum Analyser
Spurious Signals– These are unwanted signals to be detected and eliminated.
These signals cant be measured directly. They are unknown signal which needs
to be measured.

Signal Frequency– This is also an important factor to be evaluated. Since we

used the analyzer at the radio frequency level, the band of frequencies is very
high, and it becomes important to measure the frequency content of each and
every signal. For this spectrum, analyzers are specifically used.

Spectral Masks – Spectrum analyzers are also helpful to analyze the spectral
masks

Hence we have seen the working principle, design, advantages, and application
of spectrum analyzer. One must think, how to store the data that is being
measured in a spectrum analyzer? And how to transfer it to other mediums like
the computer for further measuring.
 HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYSERS
Generally, the output waveform of an electronic device, such as an amplifier, should
become an exact replica of the input waveform. However, in most of the cases that does
not happen due to the introduction of various types of distortions.

Distortions may be a result of the inherent non-linear characteristics of

components used in the electronic circuit. Non-linear behaviour of circuit elements
introduces harmonics in the output waveform and the resultant distortion is often termed
Harmonic Distortion (HD).

Types of Distortion
The various types of distortions which occur are explained below.
1. Frequency Distortion
2. Phase distortion
3. Amplitude Distortion
4. Inter-modulation Distortion
5. Cross-over Distortion
6. Total Harmonic Distortion
This distortion occurs due to the amplification factor of the amplifier is different for different
frequencies.
Phase distortion
This distortion occurs due to the presence of energy-storage elements in the system, which
cause the output signal to be displaced in phase with the input signal. If signals of all
frequencies are displaced by the same amount, the phase shift distortion would not be
observed. However, in actual practice, signals at different frequencies are shifted in phase
by different angles and therefore, the phase-shift distortion becomes noticeable.
3. Amplitude Distortion
The amplifier generates harmonics of the fundamental of the input signal. Harmonics
always give rise to amplitude distortion, for example, when an amplifier is overdriven and
clips the input signals.

This type of distortion occurs as a consequence of interaction or heterodyning of two

frequencies, giving an output which is the sum or difference of the two original
frequencies.

This type of distortion occurs in push-pull amplifier due to incorrect bias levels.
A non-linear system produces harmonics of an input sine wave, the harmonics consists of
a sine wave with frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental of the input signal.

The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is measured in terms of the harmonic contents of
the wave, as given by

In a measurement system, noise is read in addition to harmonics, and the total waveform,
consisting of harmonics, noise and fundamental, is measured instead of the
fundamental alone.
Therefore, the measured value of the total harmonic distortion(THDM) is given by
Figure 13.38 Simplified block diagrams of fundamental suppression harmonic distortion
analysers: (a) Manual reading (b) Ratio reading
The signal source has very low distortion and this can be checked by reading its output
distortion by connecting directly into the analyser. The signal from the source is fed into the
amplifier under test. This generates harmonics and the original fundamental frequency. The
fundamental frequency is removed by a notch filter.

In the manual system, as shown in Figure, the switch S is first placed in the position 1 and
the total content of fundamental and harmonics (ET) is measured. Then the switch is moved
to the position 2 to measure just the harmonics EH. the value of THD is then found using
following equation:
The meter can be calibrated by putting the switch in the position 1 and adjusting the
reading for full scale deflection. With the switch position 2, the meter reading is now
proportional to THD.
Figure shows an alternative arrangement, where the value of ET and EH are read
simultaneously and their ratio calculated and displayed as THD on the indicator.
For good accuracy, the notch filter must have excellent rejection and high pass
characteristics. It should attenuate the fundamental by 100 db or more and the harmonics
by less than 1 db. The filter also needs to be tuned accurately to the fundamental of the
signal source. This is difficult to achieve manually and most distortion analysers do this
automatically.
A common form of notch filter is a Wien bridge. This balances at one frequency
only and at this frequency, the output voltage at the bridge null detector is minimum.
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