MEASUREMENTS

AND
INSTRUMENTATION

Dr.J.KANAKARAJ
Functional Elements of an Instrument
Capacitive Transducers
A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from
one another by a nonconductor (dielectric).
When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is
capable of storing an electric charge. The storage capability of a capacitor is
measured in farads.
The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation
for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor as shown in Fig.
Where,
A = Overlapping area of plates; m2,
d = Distance between two plates; m,
= Permittivity (dielectric constant); F/m.
Capacitive Transducers
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high.
This fact calls for a careful design of the output circuitry. The capacitive
transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the
capacitor.

The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in

capacitance of the capacitor. This change in capacitance could be
caused by change in overlapping area A of the plates, change in the
distance d between the plates and change in dielectric constant.

In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical
variables, such as, displacement, force or pressure. Variation in
capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the
plates changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels.
Capacitive Transducers
Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of
linear displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig a and
fig b.

i) Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

ii) Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
iii) Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates
Capacitive Transducers
 Capacitive Transducers
The capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear
displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig a and fig b.

i) Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

ii) Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
iii) Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates
a) Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates
From the equation for capacitance, it can be found that the capacitance is directly
proportional to the overlapping area, A of the plates.

Thus, the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence this
type of capacitive transducer is useful for measurement of moderate to large
displacements say from 1 mm to several cm.
The area changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance changes.

For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is:

Where, l = length of overlapping part of plates; m,
and w = width of overlapping part of plates; m.

This type of a capacitive transducer is

suitable for measurement of linear displacement
ranging from 1 to 10 cm.
The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.
b) Transducers Using Change in Distance between Plates
The capacitive transducer (b) employing change in distance between the two
plates to cause the change in capacitance.

One plate is fixed and the displacement to be measured

is applied to the other plate which is movable.

Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d,

between the plates. The response of this transducer is not linear.

The relationship between variations of capacitance with

variation of distance between plates is hyperbolic and
is only approximately linear over a small range of displacement.

Thus this transducer is useful only for measurement of

extremely small displacements.
c) Transducers Using Change in dielectric constant between Plates

If the area (A) of and the distance (d) between the plates of a capacitor remain
constant, capacitance will vary only as a function of the dielectric constant (𝜀) of
the substance filling the gap between the plates.

If the space between the plates of a capacitor is filled

with an insulator, the capacitance of the Capacitor
will change compared to the situation in which there
is vacuum between the plates.
The change in the capacitance is caused by a
change in the electric field between the plates.
c) Transducers Using Change in dielectric constant between Plates

The 𝜺 in the basic formula is the effective dielectric

constant of the total space between the electrodes.

This space may consist of the dielectric material, air,

and even moisture, if present.

The figure shows that how in a capacitor the position

of the dielectric is varied to vary the capacitance.

Physical variables, such as, displacement, force or

pressure can cause the movement of dielectric
material in the capacitor plates, resulting in changes in
the effective dielectric constant, which in turn will
change the capacitance.
 Capacitive transducers - Applications
Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of both linear and angular
displacements.
The capacitive transducers are highly sensitive and can be used for measurement
of extremely small displacements down to the order of molecular dimensions, i.e.,
0.1x10-6 mm.
On the other hand, they can be used for measurement of large displacements up
to about 30 m as in aeroplane altimeters.
The change in area method is used for measurement of displacements ranging
from 10 to 100 mm.
Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of force
and pressure. The force and pressure to be measured are first
converted to displacement which causes a change of capacitance.

Capacitive transducers can also be used directly as pressure

transducers in all those cases where the dielectric constant of a
medium changes with pressure. They can be used for
measurement of humidity in gases and moisture content in soil /
food products etc.
 Piezoelectric transducer
The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material which has a special
property, i.e. the material induces voltage when the pressure or stress applied to it.
The material which shows such property is known as the electro-resistive element.

The word piezoelectric means the electricity produced by the pressure.

The Quartz is the example of the natural piezoelectric crystals, whereas the Rochelle
salts, ammonium dehydration, phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartrate are
the examples of the man made crystals.
The ceramic material is also used for piezoelectric transducer.
 Piezoelectric transducer - constants
The polarity of the charge depends on the direction of the applied force

Where, d – charge sensitivity of the crystals

F – applied force in Newton
The force changes the thickness of the crystals

Where A – area of crystals in meter square

t – the thickness of crystals in meter
E – Youngg’s modulus N/m2

where ω – width of crystals in meter

l – the length of crystals in meter
 Piezoelectric transducer - constants
On substituting the value of force in the equation of charge, we get

The output voltage is obtained because of the electrode charges.

 Piezoelectric transducer - constants
The g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystals.

Where E0 – electric field strength, V/m

The voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by the ratio of the electric field
intensity and pressure.

When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges.

And this charge develops the voltages across the electrodes.

The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the voltage depends
on the direction of the force which is either tensile or compressive.
The magnitude and the polarity of the charges depend on the magnitude and the
direction of the applied force.
 Piezoelectric transducer
Properties of Piezo Electric-Crystal

1.The piezoelectric material has high stability.

2.It is available in various shapes and sizes.
3.The piezoelectric material has output insensitive to temperature and humidity.

Uses of Piezoelectric Crystal

1.The piezoelectric material has high stability and hence it is used for stabilizing the
electronic oscillator.
2.The ultrasonic generators use the piezoelectric material. This generator is used in
SONAR for underwater detection and in industrials apparatus for cleaning.
3.It is used in microphones and speakers for converting the electric signal into sound.
4.The piezoelectric material is used in electric lighter.
The transducer has low output, and hence external circuit is associated with it.
Modes of Operation of Piezo-Electric Crystal

The Piezoelectric crystals are used in many modes

like,

thickness Shear,

face shear,

thickness expansion,

Transverse expansion, etc.

 Encoders
Encoder Types: Tachometer Encoder
It is a single-channel encoders that generates a train of pulses

Incremental Encoder
Provides two identical electronic pulses with small phase shift.
Used for speed or velocity control of motors

Absolute
Provides a unique electronic piece of information at each division of
shaft position.
Used for positioning systems

Resolver
Provides sine wave and cosine wave to provide both velocity and
position feedback.
 Tachometer encoder
It is a single-channel encoders that can be used to establish
motion or movement, but they suffer from the limitation that
they cannot sense the direction of movement.

In a rotary encoder, for example, a clockwise movement will

generate the same output signal as a counterclockwise
movement, therefore the electrical output of the encoder
cannot detect the direction of rotation, only the magnitude of
the motion.

B
 Incremental encoders
Incremental encoders make use of two output channels whose electrical
output signals are out-of-phase.
To accomplish this, the code disk inside of a quadrature encoder will
contain two tracks – one for each of the two signal channels A and B.

The coding of these tracks on the code disk is such that when signals are
generated (say by using an optical light source), the square wave pulse
from channel A is electrically 90o out of phase with the square wave pulse
from channel B.

The use of two signal channels that are phase-shifted therefore allows
the control circuit receiving the encoder output pulses to distinguish
directionality of motion. The same principle applies to linear motion
encoders.
 Incremental encoders
For the case of a rotary encoder that is rotating in a clockwise
direction, for example, the channel A square wave pulses will
“lead” those of channel B, and when the rotational direction is
switched to counterclockwise, the channel B pulses will lead
those of channel A.

Incremental quadrature encoders often add an additional signal

channel called a marker or index that serves to establish a
reference point which can then be used to establish the position
as well as the direction of movement.
 Incremental encoders
Incremental encoders usually have two channels (A & B) that are
offset by 90 degrees.
Signal A leads B in one direction, B leads A in the reverse
direction

Marker
Z
Incremental encoders
Incremental encoders
If complements are included (A, B ), the signal is “quadrature”,
providing speed of rotation AND direction of rotation.

Complement pulses, A and B are used to provide electrical

noise immunity for the signal as it travels through the cable.

A
A

B
Encoder
B
Incremental encoders
A marker pulse (reference, index or Z pulse) is a once per
revolution pulse that occurs at precisely the same mechanical
point in a 360º revolution of the encoder shaft.
Although a “Marker” pulse is standard on some encoders, it is
additional feature (charge) on many encoders.

Marker
Z
Incremental encoders
Incremental encoders use a simpler method of counting movement
and rely on establishing the position of the object by counting the
number of pulses and then using that count to compute the
position.

Because they rely on pulse counting, there is no unique digital

signature that can be used to determine an absolute position.
Hence in the event of a power loss, incremental encoders must be
referenced to a home position or reference point so that the
counter can be reset and then used to compute relative movement.

One way to think about the difference is that incremental encoders

measure the relative movement against some point of reference,
whereas absolute encoders measure the position directly using a
unique signal code that directly reflects the position
 Absolute encoder
In an absolute encoder, the output signal generated by the device results in a unique
set of digital bits that correspond to a specific position of the object being measured.

Even if power is lost, the absolute encoder by its design can

determine the position of the object since there is a specific
digital signal associated with every position.

They are used in applications where knowing the exact position

of an object is important.

They are also used in situations where the machine or process

is inactive for a large percentage of time or moves at a very
slow rate.
 Absolute encoder
Absolute encoders assign a unique digital word to each angular
position. Because of this, the encoder can always return the angular
position of the device being tracked when interrogated, even at start
up.

Best fits for absolute encoders include applications for which re-
homing at any point in the cycle could result in damage or unsafe
conditions.

Examples include surgical robots, automotive robots, or interrelated

mechanics or axes that could crash upon power up after a fault.

In some cases, just the time spent rehoming can negatively impact
productivity and justify the modest cost differential of an absolute
encoder.
 Gray Code
Gray Code There is one more consideration when selecting single-turn absolute
encoders: many don’t count in standard binary code. Here is an example of the way
binary normally counts up When outputs on a machine are turned on and off based on
encoder position, this could create a big problem. This may not happen very often, but
considering the PLC updates its input image table with each scan (hundreds, if not
thousands, of times per second), any glitch in reading position can be problematic.
To combat this problem of reading multiple transitions simultaneously, Gray
Code was developed. Gray Code is a special kind of binary that only increments
one bit at a time. Since only one bit changes with each transition, a PLC is much
less likely to decode erroneous position data.

Decimal # Binary Code Decimal # Binary Code Gray Code

0 0000 0000
12 01100 1 0001 0001
13 01101 2 0010 0011
14 01110 3 0011 0010
15 01111 4 0100 0110
16 10000 5 0101 0111
17 10001 6 0110 0101
18 10010 7 0111 0100
 Code Disks

Incremental Disk Absolute Disks

Binary Gray Code

 Binary Code

Angle Binary Decimal

Bit 0
0-45 000 0
Bit 1
45-90 001 1
Bit 2
90-135 010 2

Bit 0 135-180 011 3

180-225 100 4
Bit 1 225-270 101 5

270-315 110 6
Bit 2
315-360 111 7
 Gray Code
One bit change per angle change.
Angle Binary Decimal

0-45 000 0
Bit 0
45-90 001 1
Bit 1
Bit 2 90-135 011 2

135-180 010 3
Bit 0 180-225 110 4

Bit 1 225-270 111 5

270-315 101 6
Bit 2
315-360 100 7
 Sensing Technologies - Magnetic (Magneto-resistive)
Features a magnetic pulse wheel that is
imprinted with numerous, small magnetic
poles.

Rotation of the magnetic pulse wheel

creates an alternating pattern of north-
south magnetic fields for the pick-up
head.
Magnetic (Magneto-resistive)
The electrical circuit in the sensor
produces digital pulses proportional to Tough and simple
motor speed. Heavy Duty enough for Mills
No Optics (no glass breakage)
Limited to 2048 PPR
 Sensing Technologies - Optical
Utilizes a glass, plastic or metal rotating
disc that operates in an light path between
a photoelectric transmitter (LED) and
receiver.

Optical
Higher Resolution (up to 10,000 PPR)
Better signal quality
Shafted and Hollow shaft designs
 Hall Effect Transducer
When there is a Magnetic
field in the presence of a
conductor a voltage is
induced due to electron and
hole drift.
Electron – negative charge
carrier
Hole – positive charge
carrier

Discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

Quantum Hall Effect discovered in 1975
 The Hall Effect - Math

Vhall = -(I*B)/(d*n*e) • I= current

• B = Mag Flux Dens
Rhall = -1/(n*e) • d = depth of plate
• e = electric charge
• j = current density
Bfield = Uo*Ip/(2*pi*r)
• n = charge carrier dens
• r = distance to center
of wire
• Uo = 4*pi*10^-7
 Hall Effect Transducer
For simple conductors
IB IB
VH   RH
ned d

Where n = carrier density, d = conductor length

• RH is known as the Hall coefficient

• VH αB  Useful for measuring B-Fields

Hall Effect Transducer
q   q for holes
F  qE  v  B   q for electrons

B
F  qE
VH
t +
EHp + +
EHn
W

I
+
 THE HALL EFFECT

›Lorentz Force:
›F = q[E + (v x B)]

•Hall voltage is produced by charge accumulation on sidewalls

•Charge accumulation balances Lorentz Force
•Charge accumulation increases resistance
 Hall Effect Sensors

Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of

rectangular p-type semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or
indium arsenide (InAs) passing a continuous current
through itself.
When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic flux
lines exert a force on the semiconductor material which deflects the
charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either side of the
semiconductor slab. This movement of charge carriers is a result of
the magnetic force they experience passing through the
semiconductor material.

As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference

is produced between the two sides of the semiconductor material by
the build-up of these charge carriers. Then the movement of
electrons through the semiconductor material is affected by the
presence of an external magnetic field which is at right angles to it
and this effect is greater in a flat rectangular shaped material.
 Hall Effect Sensors
The effect of generating a measurable voltage by using a magnetic
field is called the Hall Effect after Edwin Hall who discovered it
back in the 1870’s with the basic physical principle underlying the
Hall effect being Lorentz force.
To generate a potential difference across the device the magnetic
flux lines must be perpendicular, (90o) to the flow of current and be
of the correct polarity, generally a south pole.
 Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor
The output voltage, called the Hall voltage, (VH) of the basic Hall
Element is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field
passing through the semiconductor material (output ∝ H).
This output voltage can be quite small, only a few microvolts
even when subjected to strong magnetic fields so most
commercially available Hall effect devices are manufactured with
built-in DC amplifiers, logic switching circuits and voltage regulators
to improve the sensors sensitivity, hysteresis and output voltage.
 2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
An RTD, also known as a resistance thermometer, measures
temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD
element with temperature.

An RTD consists of a film or, for greater accuracy, a wire

wrapped around a ceramic or glass core.

The most accurate RTDs are made using platinum but lower-
cost RTDs can be made from nickel or copper. However, nickle
and copper are not as stable or repeatable.

Platinum RTDs offer a fairly linear output that is highly accurate

(0.1 to 1 °C) across -200 to 600 °C. While providing the greatest
accuracy, RTDs also tend to be the most expensive of
temperature sensors.
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of resistance temperatures commonly employ platinum, nickel,
or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with temperature
has a high intrinsic accuracy.

The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors

can be calculated from the equation.

Where R =The resistance of the conductor at

temperature(°C)
Ro=The resistance at the reference temperature,
usually 20°C
α =The temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT=The difference between the operating and
the reference temperature
A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 150 Ω at 20o C.

Its resistance at 50o C is, with

 1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a large,
predictable, and precise change in resistance correlated to variations
in temperature.

An NTC thermistor provides a very high resistance at low temps.

As temperature increases, the resistance drops quickly. Because an
NTC thermistor experiences such a large change in resistance
per °C, small changes in temperature are reflected very fast and with
high accuracy (0.05 to 1.5 °C).

Because of its exponential nature, the output of an NTC thermistor

requires linearization. The effective operating range is -50 to 250 °C
for glass encapsulated thermistors or 150°C for standard.
Thermocouple
 3. Thermocouple
This temperature sensor type consists of two wires of different metals
connected at two points. Operates on the principle of Seebeck effect

The varying voltage between these two points reflects proportional

changes in temperature.

Thermocouples are nonlinear, requiring conversion when used for

temperature control and compensation, typically accomplished using a
lookup table. Accuracy is low, from 0.5 °C to 5 °C. However, they
operate across the widest temperature range, from -200 °C to 1750 °C.
 3. Thermocouple
The three most common thermocouple materials
used for general temperature measurement are
 Iron-Constantan (Type J),
 Copper-Constantan (Type T), and
 Nickel-Chromium (Type K).

The output voltage from a thermocouple is very small, only a

few millivolts (mV) for a 10oC change in temperature difference
and because of this small voltage output some form of
amplification is generally required.
 4. Semiconductor-based sensors
A semiconductor-based temperature sensor is placed on
integrated circuits (ICs).

These sensors are effectively two identical diodes with temperature-

sensitive voltage vs current characteristics that can be used to monitor
changes in temperature.

They offer a linear response but have the lowest accuracy of the basic
sensor types at 1 °C to 5 °C.

They also have the slowest responsiveness (5 s to 60 s) across the

narrowest temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).
 Force Summing Devices
The measurement of force or pressure can be done by converting
the applied force or pressure into a displacement by elastic
elements which act as primary transducer.
This displacement, which is a function of pressure, is then
measured by other transducers which act as secondary
transducers. The output of the secondary transducer becomes a
function of displacement, which in turn is a function of pressure.
Mechanical methods are thus used to convert the applied force or
pressure into displacement. These devices are also known as
Force Summing Devices.
 Force Summing Devices
The mechanical elastic elements possess elasticity. When
deformed, the stresses developed in the summing device establish
equilibrium with the pressure applied on it.

As the pressure is removed the elastic element regains its original

position.

The choice and design of the type of force summing elements

depends on the magnitude of the force or pressure to be
measured.
Force Summing Devices
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Class 1 82 95 › Second bullet point here
Class 2 76 88 › Third bullet point here
Class 3 84 90
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