Ch 3: Sensors and Applications

Chapter content

 Sensors and Applications

 Classification of Transducers
 Mechanical System Measurement
o Displacement Measurement
 Potentiometer
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors
 Inductive Displacement Sensor
o Strain Measurements
o Acceleration, Force and Torque measurement
 Thermal Measurement
o Thermoelectric sensing elements
 Law of Thermocouple behavior
o Thermistor
 Hall Effect Sensors
Sensors and Applications

• Measurement of both electrical and non-electrical quantities are required industrial systems
and research.

• Electrical quantities includes: voltage, current, impedance parameters, and phase, frequency
and time.

• Non-electrical measurand may be force, velocity, accelerations, mass, pressure, strain, etc.

• Measurement of non-electrical quantities requires application of transducers

• A transducer is a device that converts non-electrical quantities into electrical signal that can
be conditioned.

Question: What is the difference b/n a sensor and a transducer ?

• A transducer is a device that converts a signal from one physical form to a corresponding
signal having a different physical form.

• Therefore, a transducer is an energy converter.

• Input signals may be electrical, mechanical, thermal, magnetic, chemical, and radiation
(corpuscular and electromagnetic)

• Sensors are a devices which can quantitatively measure a certain quantity and ideally no
energy is drawn from a system being measured.

• The input-output relation of transducers can be represented as: Qo = f(Qi)

Classification of Transducers

Based on their output signal, transducers are categorized into two:

1. Active - produce voltage/current signal proportional to physical quantity

2. Passive - change in measurable parameter like impedance variation

• The general classification of transducers based on input signal:

1. Mechanical

 Force, pressure, and displacement

• =) impedance variation: resistance, capacitance, and inductance

 Speed, acceleration

• =) electromotive force (EMF) due to electrodynamic and piezoelectric effect

Examples of transducers

(a) Dynamometer (b) Gyroscope (c) Piezoresistive pressure sensor

(d) Tachometer (e) Anemometer (f) Piezoelectric transducer

Thermal measurement

 Temperature change

• =) resistance variation eg. thermometer, thermistor

 Seeback effect

• =) generate emf and thermo-couple effect

 Thermal radiation intensity

• =) radiation pyrometer

(g) NTC-thermistor (h) PTC-thermistor (i) Optical pyrometer

(j) Thermal camera (k) Image captured by thermal camera

Seeback effect

• When the two terminal of electrically connected conducting wire is set at different
temperature, the electrons at the hot junction at higher thermal velocity diffuse to cold
junction.

Figure: Seeback effect

• Such electron diffusion causes unbalanced charge concentration between the cold and hot
junction

• As a result, EMF is induced between the junctions.

• Seeback has thought that he invented way of thermal to electromagnetic energy conversion
method.

• Later it is discovered that electron diffusion produce a magnetic field (a change in emf).

• The produced emf between the two terminals depends on the magnitude of temperature
difference 𝑇 , and seeback coefficient (S) of a material.

,
(a) Thermoelectric seeback module (b) Seeback generator

Optical transducer

 Luminous flux variation

=) resistance variation

eg. photo-resistors, photo-diodes (transistors) and photo-multiplier

 Photo-electric effect =) EMF: e.g. photo-voltaic cell

(c) Infrared Reflective sensor (d) Optical sensor Module

Magnetic transducer

 Magnetic flux variation =) Hall effect, magnetic resonance, magnetic, recording

 Geometric change of magnetic circuit

=) Impedance change: inductance and flow measurement

 Permeability change

=) variable voltage transformation

Miscellaneous transducers

 Molecular eg. PH meter, electrolytic sensor

  Radioactive and nuclear reaction detector (Scintillation counter)

 Humidity sensor => Politer effect (reverse of seeback effect)

 Viscosity variation alters torque in rotating disk which is coupled with electric motor.

Displacement Measurement

 Potentiometer

(f) Linear and rotary potentiometer

Figure: Schematic diagram of rectilinear and angular displacement

 For the given potentiometer in schematic diagram, the open circuit voltage E th is given by:
𝐸 =𝑉

 For the linear(rectilinear) potentiometer the open circuit output voltage is given by:

𝑑
𝐸 =𝑉
𝑑

The open circuit or no-load output voltage of angular or rotary potentiometer with constant per unit
resistance can be expressed as:
 𝜃
𝐸 =𝑉
𝜃

 The maximum displacement (𝑑 & 𝜃 ) depends on geometric design of potentiometer.

 If the potentiometer is required to select potentiometer for specific application, the power
rating 𝑊 should be greater than actual rating 𝑊 = 𝑉 /𝑅 .

 The potentiometer can be made of wire wound or conductive plastic.

 In wire wound potentiometer resistive track there is n discrete turns as slider move
(𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 ). As the result, the resolution error becomes 𝑑 /𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 /𝑛

• The conductive plastic potentiometer has smooth and continuous track where no resolution
error occur as slider moves, but it has high temperature coefficient.

Capacitive Displacement Sensors

 The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel plate separated by a dielectric material.

 The capacitance depends on

 area of plate (A)

 inter-plate gap (d) and

 permittivity of dielectric (𝜖) material.

 Relative-permittivity is an alternative representation of dielectric property.

 In industrial automation, capacitive sensors are used as proximity sensor

Figure: Industry application of capacitive sensor

  Parallel plate capacitor sensor might be

 variable separation (𝑑 ± ∆𝑑),

 variable area (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴),

 variable dielectric (∆𝜖).

Figure: Parallel plate capacitive sensor

 Variable separation capacitive sensors can be used as

 Pressure sensor (diaphragm),

 Differential or push pull displacement sensor (𝑑 + ∆𝑑 & 𝑑 − ∆𝑑).

Cylindrical capacitors

• It is formed by two concentric cylinders where the inner is solid cylinder while the outer is thin
cylindrical conductor shell.
Figure: Cylindrical capacitive sensors

• Electric field is non-vanishing between two conducting plated ra < r < rb.

• Using Gauss's Law: 𝐸 =

• The potential difference between two plates becomes:

𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑟 = 𝑙𝑛 , 𝐶=

Inductive Displacement Sensor

 Type of inductive displacement sensors:

 Variable reluctance,

 Mutual inductance, or

 Eddy current type

Figure: Variable reluctance proximity sensor

Variable Reluctance

 The self-inductance of magnetic circuit, inductor, depends on number of turns and reluctance
of magnetic circuit.

𝑁
𝐿=
𝑅
• Where: N= number of turns and R is reluctance.

• For the medium with l mean flux path, A cross-sectional area, and 𝜇 relative permeability,
the reluctance is calculated by:

𝑅= , 𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10 𝐻/𝑚

 Thus variable reluctance is achieved by altering relative permeability (𝜇 ) (i.e. change in

medium), or mean flux path to cross-sectional area ratio (l/A).
 The inductance of magnetic-circuit (variable inductive sensor) has non-linear relation with
displacement change (∆l).

𝐿= , 𝜇=𝜇 𝜇

Figure: Variable reluctance proximity sensor

 The push-pull configuration of variable reluctance inductive sensor gives linear output.

Figure: Different configuration of variable reluctance displacement sensor

 The reluctance of air is larger than the reluctance of ferromagnetic material.

 Small change in air gap cause significant difference in inductance.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Figure: Linear Variable Differential Transformer Figure: Schematic diagram of LVDT

 Electromechanical device designed to produce an AC voltage output proportional to relative

displacement of transformer and iron core.

 The LVDT consists of a primary coil b/n two secondary coils that can be connected either in
series additive or subtractive fashion.

 The LVDT primary coil is excited by 1 to 15 volt amplitude at 50 Hz to 20 kHz frequency range.

 Most commonly, the 1.0 V volt amplitude at 10 kHz ac signal is used for excitation.

 If secondary winding of LVDT connected in series opposition manner, induced voltages cancel
each other.

 A primary winding can be modeled as inductor with series resistance, an internal resistance of
the coil.

𝑑𝑖
𝑖 𝑅 +𝐿 =𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝐸 𝐸 /𝑅
𝐼 = =
𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑠𝐿 /𝑅 + 1

 The mutually induced voltage in secondary windings can be written as:

𝑒 =𝑀 , 𝑒 =𝑀

Figure: Series opposing connection of LVDT secondary coils

• Normally the LVDT is connected in series opposition manner.

• In this case the output (eo) becomes the voltage difference b/n two secondary coils.
 𝐸 (𝑀 − 𝑀 )𝑠
𝐸 = (𝑀 − 𝑀 )𝑠𝐼 => =
𝐸 𝐿 𝑠+𝑅

Strain Measurement

 Stress is defined as the ratio of force over area experienced by body.

 It can be either tensile stress (+F/A) which tends to increase length of material

 Or compressive stress (-F/A) which tends to reduce the length of body.

 Strain is the effect of applied stress in the body.

Δ𝑙
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒 =
𝑙

where Δ𝑙 is change in length, and 𝑙 original unstressed length.

• Longitudinal strain (e) is positive for tensile stress (𝑒 = +Δ𝑙/𝑙 ) and

• negative for compressive stress (𝑒 = −Δ𝑙/𝑙 ).

• In certain range of values, a relation between stress and strain is linear.

• The ratio of stress and strain is known as elastic modulus.

 Elastic modulus can be:

1. Young's modulus (E): the linear tensile and compressive stress

2. Shear modulus (S): elastic modulus of shear stress.

• Longitudinal tensile strain is accompanied by increase in length and decrease in cross-

sectional area.

• The longitudinal tensile strain(𝑒 ) is accompanied by transversal compressive strain (𝑒 ).

𝑒 = −𝑣𝑒

where v is Poisson's ratio

(a) Tensile strain effect (b) Compressive strain effect

• Strain gauge is a semiconductor or metal material whose resistance changes under strain.

• The resistance of strain gauge of area (A) and length (l) is given by:

𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅
∆𝑅 = ∆𝑙 + ∆𝐴 + ∆𝜌
𝜕𝑙 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝜌

𝜌 𝜌𝑙 𝑙
∆𝑅 = ∆𝑙 − ∆𝐴 + ∆𝜌
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
• Rewriting as the ratio of resistance R,

∆𝑅 ∆𝑙 ∆𝐴 ∆𝜌
= − +
𝑅 𝑙 𝐴 𝜌

• The longitudinal tensile strain which is accompanied by compressive transversal strain can be
shown as:

∆𝑙 ∆𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
𝑒 = , = Δ𝑤 + Δ𝑡
𝑙 𝐴 𝑤𝑡 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑡
∆𝑅 ∆𝐴 Δ𝑤 Δ𝑡
⇒ 𝑒 = −𝑣𝑒 = 𝑒 − 2𝑒 = (1 + 2𝑣)𝑒 = + = 2𝑒
𝑅 𝐴 𝑤 𝑡
• Gauge factor of strain gauge,

Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺=
𝑒
where 𝑅 is unstrained gauge resistance
∆
• Thus, 𝐺 = (1 + 2𝑣) +

∆
• The term is known as piezoresistive effect.
Acceleration, Force and Torque measurement

• When force is exerted on spring, it react with change in length which is proportional to applied
force.

• By principle of Hook's law, the elastic sensing elements converts force into displacement.

• Elastic sensing elements cascaded with displacement sensors are used for measuring pressure,
torque, acceleration and force.

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

Thermal Measurement

Thermoelectric Sensing Elements

• They are commonly used for measuring temperature.

• If two different metals are joined together, there is a difference in electric potential across
junction called junction potential.

Thermoelectric Sensing Elements

 The junction potential depends on type of two metals and temperature.

 For metal A & B, the junction potential at temperature T becomes:

 𝐸 =𝑎 𝑇+𝑎 𝑇 +𝑎 𝑇 +𝑎 𝑇 +⋯

 Iron-Constantan J-type thermocouple junction potential is expressed as follows:

𝐸 = 50.37𝑇 + 3.043 × 10 𝑇 − 8.567 × 10 𝑇 + 1.335 × 10 𝑇 𝜇𝑉

 A thermocouple is a closed circuit consisting of two junctions, at different temperatures T 1 and T2

0
C.

 If a high-impedance voltmeter is introduced into the circuit, so that current flow is negligible,
then the measured e.m.f. is, to a close approximation, the difference of the junction
potentials.

𝐸 = 𝑎 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) + 𝑎 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) + 𝑎 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) + ⋯

Law of Thermocouple Behavior

I. Junction emf of thermocouple depends on temperature of junction and independent of

temperature of wire connecting the junctions.

II. If third metal whose junction temperature is introduced between thermocouple metals, the
junction temperature remain unchanged.

 Thus voltmeter can be introduced to measure output voltage with out affecting its junction emf.
III. If third metal is inserted between to thermocouple-metal at either junction provided that the
two new junctions are at the same temperature (𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 ), the emf is unchanged.

Thus the thermocouple junctions can be soldered, brazed with other metal without affecting
its characteristics.

IV. Law of intermediate metal is used to determine thermocouple effect of unknown metal,
provided that the two other metals are known.

𝐸 , =𝐸 , +𝐸 ,

Eg. The emf of Copper-Iron thermocouple can be determined if emf value of Copper-Constantan
and iron-constantan is known.

V. Law of intermediate temperature is used to interpret emf measurements.

𝐸 , =𝐸 , +𝐸 ,

where 𝑇 is the intermediate temperature

Thermistor

 It is the resistive temperature sensor made from semiconductor material.

Figure: NTC thermistor

NTC Thermistors

 The most commonly used type is prepared from oxides of the iron group of transition metal
elements such as chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt and nickel.
 The resistance of such element decrease with increase in temperature are known as Negative
Temperature Coefficient.

𝛽
𝑅 = 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝜃

where K and 𝛽 are constants and 𝜃 is temperature in Kelvin.

 The most commonly used alternative equation is:

1 1
𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝛽 −
𝜃 𝜃

where 𝑅 is reference temperature 𝜃 K which is commonly 25 0C

Hall Effect Sensors

 The current (I ) flowing in metal or semiconductor produce current density (J ) which is the
ratio of current and conductor cross-sectional area (A).

𝐼
𝐽=
𝐴
 If magnetic field is exerted to the rectangular hall effect sensor in z-direction, the electron and
hole carrier which flows in a direction of x will experience force in y-axis.

 The deflection of charge carrier in a semi-conductor or metal by externally applied magnetic

field produces unbalanced charge distribution in y-direction.

 The unbalanced charge distribution develops electric field in y-direction that tends to counter
balance effect of external magnetic field in hall effect sensor.

 At equilibrium point, where the magnetic force is counter balanced by electric forces, the Hall
electric field (E) in V/m is given by:

𝐸=− = − 𝑅 𝐽𝐵, [E] = V/m

where J = current density in Am-2, B is magnetic flux density in Tesla, n density of electrons in m-3,
e electron charge in Coulomb C and RH is Hall coefficient
 The Hall coefficient

1
𝑅 =
𝑛𝑒
 The Hall voltage (V ) is given by:

𝑅
𝑉=+ 𝐼𝐵
𝑡

where t is thickness in m.

 For constant current I , Hall voltage V is proportional to magnetic field density.

 Thus the Hall effect devices are usually used for magnetic field sensors.

 Silicon, doped with n- and p-type material, has a high Hall coefficient and is a suitable
material.

 The Hall sensor has two pair of electrodes, one for current and the other for Hall voltage

Piezoelectric Sensing Elements

 If force is applied to any crystal, its atoms are displaced a distance x from their normal
position in the lattice.

1
𝑥= 𝐹
𝑘
 The stiffness k of crystal is very large, typically 2 x 10 9

N/m thus the dynamic relation between x and F can be written as second order system.

𝛿𝑥 1/𝑘
=
𝛿𝐹 1 2𝜁
𝑠 + 𝑠+1
𝜔 𝜔

where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 is large, typically 10𝑘𝐻𝑧 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 100𝑘𝐻𝑧 and 𝜁 ≈ 0.01.

 Deformation of piezoelectric crystal lattice results a net charge q proportional to displacement

(x).

 Piezoelectric effect is reversible i.e. exerted force generate equivalent emf and applied
voltage cause mechanical displacement of the material.

 Direct piezoelectric effect: F => q

1 𝐾
𝑞 = 𝐾𝑥 = 𝐾 𝐹 = 𝐹
𝑘 𝑘
 𝑞 = 𝑑𝐹

where 𝑑 = 𝐾/𝑘𝐶𝑁 is charge sensitivity (Coulomb/Newton) to force.

 Inverse piezoelectric effect: V => x

𝑥 = 𝑑𝑉

Eg. The inverse effect is important in ultrasonic transmitters.

Figure: Piezoelectric sensor

 A metal electrodes are deposited on the face of crystal to give capacitance for the sake of
charge measurement.

𝜖 𝜖 𝐴
𝐶 =
𝑡
where A is area and t is crystal thickness.

 The piezoelectric sensors can be represented as charge generator q in parallel with capacitor
Cn

 The Norton equivalent circuit of the sensor consists current source in parallel to impedance of
capacitor.

𝑑𝑥
𝐼 =𝑘
𝑑𝑡