MEASUREMENT AND

INSTRUMENTATION
Transducer and Data Acquisition Systems
 Transducer
• A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one
system and transmits it to another, often in a different form.

• The energy transmitted by these systems may be electrical, mechanical

or acoustical.

• The nature of electrical output from the transducer depends on the

basic principle involved in the design. The output may be analog,
digital or frequency modulated. Basically, there are two types of
transducers, electrical, and mechanical.
 For example, a microphone transforms the air pressure from the vibration of vocal cords
(acoustic) into electrical signal for amplification.

• The vibration or pressure from the vocal cord

Permanent magnet hits the diaphragm with the coils and causes a
movement .

• Once the coils cuts on the permanent magnet ,

Vibration/pressure
voltage is induced and thus, current
proportional to the input vibration flows.

• Vibration/pressure(physical quantity) is hence

transformed into an electrical signal with the
Microphone serving as the transducer.

Coils
Basic microphone
 Electrical Transducer
• An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or
optical quantity to be measured is transformed directly by a suitable mechanism
into an electrical voltage/current proportional to the input measurand.

Electrical transducers can be broadly classified into two major categories,

(i) Active, (ii) Passive.
• An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the
physical parameter and does not require an external power source for its
operation. Active transducers are self generating devices, which operate under
energy conversion principle and generate an equivalent output signal (for
example from pressure to charge or temperature to electrical potential).
Typical example of active transducers are piezo electric sensors (for generation of
charge corresponding to pressure) and photo voltaic cells (for generation of voltage
in response to illumination).
• Passive transducers operate under energy controlling principles, which makes it
necessary to use an external electrical source with them. They depend upon the
change in an electrical parameter (R, L and C). Typical example are strain gauges
(for resistance change in response to pressure), and thermistors (for resistance
change corresponding to temperature variations).
A transducer which converts a non-electrical quantity into an analog electrical
signal may be considered as consisting of two parts, the sensing element, and the
transduction element.

The sensing or detector element is that part of a transducer which responds to a

physical phenomenon or to a change in a physical phenomenon. The response of
the sensing element must be closely related to the physical phenomenon.

The transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an

electrical output. This, in a way, acts as a secondary transducer.
• Transducers may be further classified into different categories depending upon the principle
employed by their transduction elements to convert physical phenomena into output electrical
signals.

The different electrical phenomena employed in the transduction elements of transducers are as
follows.
1. Resistive 6. Photo-emissive
2. Inductive 7. Photo-resistive
3. Capacitive 8. Potentiometric
4. Electromagnetic 9. Thermo-electric
5. Piezo-electric 10. Frequency generating
 Selecting a Transducer
The transducer or sensor has to be physically compatible with its intended application. The
following should be considered while selecting a transducer.
1. Operating range :Chosen to maintain range requirements and good resolution.
2. Sensitivity :Chosen to allow sufficient output.
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency Flat over the entire
desired range.
4. Environmental compatibility :Temperature range, corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks,
interaction, size and mounting restrictions.
5. Minimum sensitivity: To expected stimulus, other than the measurand.
6. Accuracy: Repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors
expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli.
7. Usage and ruggedness: Ruggedness, both of mechanical and electrical
intensities versus size and weight.
8. Electrical parameters: Length and type of cable required, signal to
noise ratio when combined with amplifiers, and frequency response
limitations.
 Resistive Transducer
• Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance changes
due to a change in some physical phenomenon. The change in
the value of the resistance with a change in the length of the
conductor can be used to measure displacement.
• It finds its application in:
 Potentiometers
 Strain gauges
 Resistance thermometers
 Thermistor
 RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
 Potentiometer
It is an electromechanical transducer that convert mechanical energy(displacement) into electrical energy(voltage).
The displacement can linear or rotational. There are two types of potentiometers based on the king of displacement
• Translational (linear ) potentiometer • There is a fixed input voltage and due to
• Rotational potentiometer
the movement of the wiper on the
Wiper
Fixed (displacement) resistance, an output voltage is produced.
terminal due to wiper
movement
Variable
Terminal

General circuit of potentiometer

 Translational or Linear Potentiometer
The goal is to measure non electrical quantity which in this case could be
a linear displacement or velocity or distance.

The moving object is connected to the wiper or slider.

Vt Whenever motion takes place the position of the wiper also changes
leading to a change in the resistance element and thus producing a
variable output voltage Vo.

Ideally, the ratio of the input and output voltage will be equal
to the displacement ratios.
R2 is the displacement (resistance) from zero position(the
wiper is initially kept at zero position.
R1 + R2 is the total length(resistance) of the potentiometer.
Vt is the input voltage
Vo is the output voltage
1. A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 3.0 in. is applied to the circuit of Fig(b). The
total resistance of the potentiometer is 5 kW. The applied voltage Vt is 5 V. When the wiper is 0.9
in. from B, what is the value of the output voltage?

(b)
2. A resistive transducer with a resistance of 5 kΏ and a shaft stroke of 3.0 in. is
used in the arrangement in Fig (a) and (b). Potentiometer R3–R4 is also 5 k Ώ and
Vt is 5.0 V. The initial position to be used as a reference point is such that R1 = R2
(i.e. the shaft is at the center). At the start of the test, potentiometer R3 –R4 is
adjusted so that the bridge is balanced (Ve = 0).
Assuming that the object being monitored moves a maximum resistance of 0.5 in.
towards A, what will be the new value of Ve? (Shaft distance is 5 in.)
Vt Rotary/Rotational Potentiometer
The resistive element is arrange in circular function and the wiper
moves rotationally.
Moving A constant input voltage Vt is supplied to the wiper or slider.
object The moving is connected to the wiper.
When there is movement of the object, the wiper also moves in
the rotational manner.
A change in motion corresponds to a change in resistance and
thus a variable output voltage based on the resistance change is
produced.

Where Vo is the output voltage

Vt in the input voltage , is rotational/ angular displacement from
zero position and is the total displacement(resistance ) of the
potentiometer.
 Strain Gauges
• The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical
resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.

• It is well known that stress (force/unit area) and strain (elongation or compression/unit length)
in a member or portion of any object under pressure is directly related to the modulus of
elasticity.

• Since strain can be measured more easily by using variable resistance transducers, it is a
common practice to measure strain instead of stress, to serve as an index of pressure. Such
transducers are popularly known as strain gauges.

• If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact
that both the length and diameter of the conductor changes.

• Piezo-resistive effect is a change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected
to strain, Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.
• Load cells, torque meters, pressure gauges, temperature sensors, etc. employ strain gauges as secondary
transducers.

• When a gauge is subjected to positive stress, its length increases while its area of cross-section decreases.

• Since the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area of
cross-section, the resistance of the gauge increases with strain, that is
where Ρ = the specific resistance of the material in Ώm, l = the length of the
conductor in m
A = the area of the conductor in m2
Gauge factor (GF) : The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain. It is
the ratio of the change in resistance Δ R/R to the change in the length Δ l/l
The most important types of strain gauges are. Wire, Foil and Semiconductor
strain gauges.
• The gauge factor of different materials are given below

MATERIAL GUAGE FACTOR

Metal Foil 2-5

Thin-Film Metal(constantan) 2

Single Crystal Silicon -125 to 200

Polysilicon +/- 30
Poly Ge 102
Thick Film Resistors 100
A resistance strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is cemented to a steel
member, which is subjected to a strain of 1 X 10–6. If the original
resistance value of the gauge is 130 Ώ, calculate the change in
resistance.
APPLICATIONS.
Strain gauges are installed on these structures and then, the complete
data from them is remotely retrievable through data loggers and
readout units. They are considered significant measuring equipment for
ensuring productivity and safety.
• They are used to monitor bridges, dams power plants for overloading to avoid
accidents.

• Use to measure the force required to rotates an objects in motors wheels and
propellers.
• The transducer generally consist of a sensor which converts what is being measured(physical quantity) to an electrically
related parameter.
• In order to measure the voltage proportional to the change in resistance caused by strain, whetstone bridge is used.

They are bonded unto a structure in

order to measure the amount of force
Under balanced conditions, or deformation the structure is
Vba = 0 experiencing

However, when Radj is varied,

there will be a corresponding
voltage proportional to the
change in resistance in Radj
 Flow of Electrons in conductors and Semiconductors

Conductors Semiconductors

Electron flow at normal temperature

Increased thermal energy Even though atoms in a semiconductor also vibrate

Electron flow at increased Temperature
to offer resistance when the temperature increases,
the number of electrons that are produced are so
large( is exponential) that the resistance it offers is
unable to impede the flow of the electrons in that
large quantity .
 Resistance Thermometer/Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This
property is utilised for the measurement of temperature.

• The resistance thermometer is an instrument used to measure electrical

resistance in terms of temperature, i.e. it uses the change in the electrical
resistance of the conductor to determine the temperature.

• They have positive temperature co-efficience (PTC) that is the are made of
materials whose resistance increases with an increasing temperature( metals)

The variation of resistance R with temperature T(k) is represented by

R = Ro (1 +α1T + α2T^2 +….. αnT ^n)
Ro = resistance of metal, Ro resistance at zero kelvin α1, α2 … αn are constant
• The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element. The characteristics of the sensing element
determines the sensitivity and operating temperature range of the instrument.

• The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively large resistance change with change in
temperature.
• Also, the material used should be stable in its characteristics, i.e. neither its resistance nor its temperature
coefficient of resistance should undergo permanent change with use or age.

• Another desirable characteristic for a sensing element is a linear change in resistance with change in temperature

Resistance Temperature Characteristics

• Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure temperature. The
resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher temperatures than for other
metals, hence it is a commonly used material form resistance thermometers.

• The temperature range over which platinum has stability is – 260–1100°C.

• Figure (a) shows an industrial platinum resistance thermometer. The changes in resistance
caused by changes in temperature are detected by a Wheatstone bridge, as shown in
Figure(b).

• Hence, the temperature sensing element, which may be nickel, copper or platinum contained
in a bulb or well, along with the balancing bridge, form the essential components of a
temperature measuring system based upon this principle.
 The sensing element Rs is made of a material
having a high temperature
coefficient, and R1, R2, and R5 are made of
resistances that are practically constant
under normal temperature changes.

When no current flows through the

galvanometer, the normal principle of
Wheatstone’s bridge states the ratio of
resistance is
(a) Industrial platinum resistance
(b) Bridge circuit
thermometer
Sensing element: Response to the temperature by In normal practice, the sensing element is
away from the indicator, and its
generating a measurable resistance. leads have a resistance R3, R4.
Lead support: Provide support for the sensing element Therefore
Mounting Thread: welded to the sheath for support
Connecting Leads: connect the sensor element to a
temperature transmitter. Now if resistance Rs changes, balance
Sheath: houses parts of the temperature sensor made of cannot be maintained and the
galvanometer shows a deflection, which
metal and protect the sensor from mechanical shocks. can be calibrated to give a suitable
temperature scale.
An application of Resistance Thermometer Resettable fuse
 Thermistor/Thermal Resistor
• The electrical resistance of most materials changes with temperature. By selecting materials that are very temperature
sensitive, devices that are useful in temperature control circuits and for temperature measurements can be made.

• It is a special type of resistor whose changes with a change temperature. Temperature can be measured by measuring the
variations in resistance caused by a corresponding change in temperature.

• Are non-metallic resistors (semiconductor material), made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel,
cobalt, copper and uranium.

• Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), i.e. they are made of materials whose resistance decreases with
an increasing temperature (semiconductor materials).

• Every one degree Celsius rise in temperature corresponds to a 5% decrease in the resistance of the material and are
therefore highly sensitive to temperature.
• Temperature range -60 to 15, Resistance range : 0.5 – 0.75 ohms.

• They are highly sensitive compared to RTDs and thermocouples but has a nonlinear characteristics of resistance versus
temperature.
Types of thermistors
(i) Bead: smallest in size between diameter 0.015mm – 1.25mm
(ii) Glass probes diameter of 2.5mm and length varies from 6mm to 50mm
(iii) Disc 2.5mm to 25mm
(iv) Washer 12.5 mm -50 mm Resistance Temperature Characteristics
An increase in
temperature
results in a
decrease in
resistance
Application of thermistor
Electrical Symbols for Thermistor and RTD

Air conditioners , fridges

Load Cell
An Example of Load cell is the weight scale (used in our homes and hospitals)
Industrial Application of Load Cell

Load cell
 Data acquisition system (DAS)
 Analog data is generally acquired and converted into digital form for the purpose of processing, transmission,
display and storage. Processing may consist of a large variety of operations, ranging from simple comparison to
complicated mathematical manipulations, and the system responsible for these processes is the data acquisition
system.

 Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals and measure real world conditions and converting the resulting
samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer. DAS typically converts analog
waveforms to digital values for processing.

 The component of data acquisition system include :

• i. Sensors to convert physical parameters into electrical signals
• ii. Signal conditioning circuitry to convert the sensed signal into a form that can be converted into digital values.
(strengthen the quality of output signals of sensor/transducer. Common signal conditioning functions are
amplification, filtering, linearization etc.
• Iii. Analog to digital converter to convert conditioned sensor signal to digital values and transferred to controllers
for further processing.

 Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by software programs developed using general purpose
programing languages such as Assembly, Basic , C, C++, java, lab-view etc.
Generalized data acquisition system
 Objective of data acquisition system
 It must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at the correct time.

 Use of all data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the plant.

 It must monitor the complete plant operation to maintain on-line optimum and safe operations.

 It must provide an effective human communication system and be able to identify problem areas, thereby
minimizing unit availability and maximizing unit through point at minimum cost.

 It must be able to collect, summarise and store data for diagnosis of operation and record purpose.

 It must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-line, real time data.

 It must be flexible and capable of being expanded for future requirements.

 It must be reliable, and not have a down time greater than 0.1%.
 Single and Multi-Channel Data Acquisition System.
 A single channel data acquisition system consists of a signal conditioner followed by an analog to digital (A/D) converter,
performing repetitive conversions at a free running, internally determined rate.

 A single channel DAS is shown in Fig A. The digital outputs are further fed to a storage or printout device, or to a digital
computer device, or to a digital computer for analysis.

 The multi-channel DAS has a single A/D converter preceded by a multiplexer, as shown in Fig.B. The individual analog signals
are applied directly or after amplification and/ or signal conditioning, whenever necessary, to the multiplexer. These are
further converted to digital signals by the use of A/D converters, sequentially.

 For the most efficient utilization of time, the multiplexer is made to seek the next channel to be converted while the previous
data stored in the sample/hold is converted to digital form.
 B (Multi-channel DAS)
A (Single channel DAS)

A buffer is a temporary holding area for data while it's

waiting to be transferred to another location.