Transducer & Sensor

Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
 Contents…contd
Resistive Position Transducers
Capacitive Transducers
Inductive Transducers
Strain Gauge
Photoelectric Transducer
 Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
Objectives
Ability to understanding the definition,
functions & categories of transducers.
List the classes and types and examples of
transducers.
Operations and applications for each
transducers
 Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
 Sensor and Transducer
 Sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus
and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
E.g. : Thermistor

 Transducer is a device that transfers power from one system

to another in the same or in the different form'.
E.g. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to
electricity.

As a comparison……

‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the
sensing element plus any associated circuitry. All transducers
would thus contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would
also be transducers.
 Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
Sensing Process
 Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
Definition of a Transducer
Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form
to another energy. The majority either convert electrical
energy to mechanical displacement or convert some
non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature,
sound or light to an electrical signal.
 Type of Transducers

Electrical Transducers
◦ Converts the input measurand into an electrical
voltage/current

Non electrical
physical quantity
Transducer Electrical
signal

Mechanical Transducers
◦ Converts the input measurand into a mechanical
energy
 Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
Functions of Transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and
frequency of some measurand.

2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately

processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand

Measurand
Transducer Electrical output

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the

transducer translates to an electrical signal.
 Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
Classification of Transducers
Transducer can be classified according to
their application, based primarily on the physical
quantity, property, or condition that is measured.

A transducer can be classified

(i)  On the basis of transduction form used,

(ii)  As primary and secondary transducers
(iii) As passive and active transducers
(iv) As analog and digital transducers and
(v)  As transducers and inverse transducers
1. Classification based upon principle of transduction

The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of

transduction as resistive, inductive, capacitive etc. depending upon
how they convert the input quantity into resistance, inductance or
capacitance respectively.

2. Primary and Secondary Transducers

Primary transducers are transducers which convert a physical quantity

into another form. But the secondary transducers convert the output
signal from the primary transducer into a usable output (i.e. an
electrical signal).

For eg., the Bourdon tube converts the input pressure into a displacement, as primary transducer
and the
LVDT converts this displacement into an analogous voltage, as secondary transducer.
Fig. Measurement of pressure using Bourdon tube and LVDT
3. Passive and Active Transducers
(i) Active transducer
 Generates an electrical signal directly in response to the
physical parameter and does not require an external
power source for its operation. Thus active transducers
are self-generating devices.
 Typical examples of active transducers are piezo electric
sensors (for generation of charge corresponding to
pressure) and photo voltaic cells (for generation of
voltage in response to illumination).

(ii) Passive transducers

 Derive the power required for transduction from an
auxiliary power source. Thus passive transducers require
an external electrical source to convert the physical
parameters into an electrical signal. They are also known
as externally powered transducers. They depend upon
the change in an electrical parameter (R, L and C).
 Typical examples are strain gauges (for resistance
change in response to pressure) and thermistors (for
resistance change corresponding to temperature
variations).
 Active Transducers - Do not requires external
power produce an analog voltage

measurand electrical output

 Passive Transducers -Require external power

source to operate
measurand electrical output

external power
 Contents
Objectives
Sensor and Transducer
Sensing Process
Definition of Transducer
Function of Transducer
Classification of Transducer
Selecting of Transducer
Temperature Transducer
Selecting a Transducers
1. Operating range
=> The transducer should maintain range
requirements and good resolution.
2. Sensitivity
=> the transducer must be sensitive enough to allow
sufficient output.
3. Environmental compatibility
=> ability to make applicable and interactions
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand. => The transducer must
be minimally sensitivity
6. Accuracy => Subject to repeatability and calibration error
7. Physical condition => Depend on its usage
8. Electrical parameters => Length and type of cable
required, signal to noise ratio (SNR) when combined with
amplifiers and frequency response limitations.
Transducers
 Resistive Transducer
=> Potentiometer
 Resistive Position Transducer
 Capacitive Transducer
 Inductive Transducer
 Temperature transducers
 Strain Gauge
 Photoelectric
 Potentiometer
 Electromechanical device containing a resistance
element that is contacted by a movable slider
 The motion of the movable slider may be translatory
or rotational.
Helipots Type
Rotational Type

Translatory type
Resistive Position Transducer
 APPLICATION
• Potentiometer senses displacement by means of sensing
shaft, which is mechanically connected to the point or objects
whose displacement, is to be measured.

• Example:
Petrol-tank level indicator.
In this case, potentiometer is used to indicate/sense the petrol
level in a tank as shown in Figure below. The output signal
(voltage) is proportional to the petrol level.
 Resistive Position Transducer

The principle of the resistance transducer is that the physical

variable under measurement causes a resistance change in the
sensing element.
A common requirement in industrial measurement and control
work is to be able to sense the position of an object or distance
it has moved.
L Potentiometer
. R 
A

R: resistance change
: density
L: Length
A: area
 Cont’d…

FIG 1 (a) FIG 1 (b)

Figure shows the construction of a displacement transducer uses a

resistance element with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the
object being monitored.

The resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance
element depends on the position of the object. The output voltage
depends on the wiper position and therefore is a function of the
shaft position.
Consider Fig 1 (b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V0 is a
certain fraction of VT, depending on the position of the wiper:

V0 R2

VT R1  R2
This equation shows that the output voltage is directly
proportional to the position of the wiper (R2), if the resistance of
the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length of travel of
the wiper.

EXAMPLE 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 4 in. is used
in the circuit of figure 1 (b). R1 +R2 is 1000 Ω and VT = 4 V.
The wiper is 1.5 in from B. Find V0?
 Capacitive Transducer
• Capacitive transducers are nothing but the capacitors
with the variable capacitance. These are mainly used for
the measurement of displacement, pressure etc.
• A capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated
by an air space or by a dieletric (insulating material).
• The capacitance of the pair of plates is a measure of
the amount of charge that can be transferred before a
certain voltage is reached.
• If the capacitance is large, more charge is needed to
establish a given voltage difference.
 Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

kA 0
C ( Farads )
d

where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m
 Cont’d
Forms of Capacitance Transducers

Rotary plate capacitor

Thin diaphragm

Rectilinear Capacitance Transducer

 Cont’d

Rotary plate capacitor:

The capacitance of this unit proportional to the

amount of the fixed plate that is covered, that
shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer
will give sign proportional to curvilinear
displacement or angular velocity.
 Cont’d

Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:

It consists of a fixed cylinder

and a moving cylinder. These
pieces are configured so the
moving piece fits inside the
fixed piece but insulated from
it.
 Cont’d

Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies the
spacing between surfaces. The
dielectric is either air or
vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.
Cont’d
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length

Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit
Example :
A capacitive transducer is used for the measurement of linear
displacement, X, as shown in below. The parallel plate has a
dimension of 5.0cm X 5.0cm and is separated by a distance
of 1.0cm. The space between the plates is filled with a
dielectric material of 1.0cm thick, which has a dielectric
constant of 4.0. If the dielectric constant for air is 1.0cm,
determine the value of the capacitance when x is equal to:
(i) 0.0cm
(ii) 2.0cm
 Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self
generating or passive type. The self generating type
utilises the basic electrical generator principle, i.e, a
motion between a conductor and magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor (generator action).
This relative motion between the field and the
conductor is supplied by changes in the measurand.

An inductive electromechanical transducer is a

device that converts physical motion (position
change) into a change in inductance. Transducers of
variable inductance type work upon one of the
following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
Cont..

Inductive transducers are mainly used for the

measurement of displacement. The displacement to be
measured is arranged to cause variation in any of three
variables:

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic
circuits
Temperature Transducers
Temperature transducers can be divided
into four main categories:

1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

2. Thermocouples
3. Thermistor
 1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with
temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many
configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors
can be calculated from the equation:

R  R 0 (1  T )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually
200C
α = the temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT = the difference between the operating and the
reference temperature
RTD (resistance temperature detector)
=> A temperature sensor that operates on the
measurement principle that a material’s electrical
resistance changes with temperature.

Exercise:
 2) Thermocouple

It consists of two wires of different metals are joined

together at one end, a temperature difference between this
end and the other end of wires produces a voltage between
the wires. The magnitude of this voltage depends on the
materials used for the wires and the amount of temperature
difference between the joined ends and the other ends.
How does a thermocouple
look like ?

please note the two wires (of two

different metals) joined in the junction.
How does a thermocouple work ?
In normal operation, cold junction is
placed in an ice bath
Cont’d
The emf of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 – T2) + k(T12 – T22)

Where
c and k = constant of the thermocouple
materials
T1 = The temperature of the “hot”
junction
T2 = The temperature of the “cold” or
“reference” junction
Cont’d
Advantages of thermocouples:
1. It has rugged construction
2. Temperature range -2700C to 27000C
3. Using extension leads and compensating cables,
long transmission distances for temperature
measurement are possible
4. Bridge circuits are not needed for temperature
measurement
5. Comparatively cheaper in cost
6. Calibration checks can be easily performed
7. Thermocouples offer good reproducibility
8. Speed of response is high compared to the filled
system thermometer
9. Measurement accuracy is quite good
Cont’d

Thermocouples and thermocouple assemblies: (a) Uninsulated

thermocouple (b) insulated thermocouple (c) probe assembly
(d) thermocouple well
(i) Thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure
temperature changes, relying on the change in its
resistance with changing temperature.

(ii)Thermistor (THERmally sensitive resISTOR)

=> non-metallic resistors (semiconductor material),
made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.’
 3) Thermistor …cont

Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC).

That is, their resistance decreases as their temperature
rises.

Types of thermistor Resistance

Disc 1 to 1MΩ
Washer 1 to 50kΩ
Rod high resistance
 Advantages of Thermistor
• Small size and low cost

• Fast response over narrow temperature range

• Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) region

• Cold junction compensation not required due to

dependence of resistance on absolute temperature.

• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered

due to large resistance
Limitations of Thermistor

• Non linearity in resistance vs temperature

characteristics
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range
• Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high
resistance

Electrical symbol of a thermistor

Cont’d

Figure 3: Various configurations of thermistor

 Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire
element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member
undergoing stress. A tensile stress
tends to elongate the wire and
thereby increase its length and
decrease its cross-sectional area.
The combined effect is an increase in resistance:

L
R
A
Where,

ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters

L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)

As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:

1) The change in gauge resistance

2) The change in length

The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,

K, is expressed mathematically as
 R / R
K
L / L
Where

K= the gauge factor

R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
∆R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
∆L=the change in initial length in meters

∆L/L same unit with G, therefore

R / R
K
G
From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.
2
F D
S and A  j    
2
(circle area)
A 2
Where
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters
j = radius in meters
D= diameter in meters

Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called Young’s

modulus (Hooke’s Law) is written as:

Where,
S F/A E= Young modules in kg per square meter
E  S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G L / L G= the strain (no units)
∆L = the change in initial length in meters
L = the initial length in meters
Metallic strain gauge – formed from thin resistance
wire or etched from thin sheets of metal foil.

Wire gauge (small) – to minimum leakage – for high

T applications

Semiconductor strain gauge – high output

transducers as load cells

Strain gauge is generally used as one arm of bridge

What’s Photoelectric Effect?
-is the emission of electrons from matter upon
the absorption of electromagnetic radiation,
such as ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.
-refers to the emission, or ejection, of electrons
from the surface of, generally, a metal in
response to incident light.
 Photoelectric Transducer
Can be categorized as: photoemissive, photoconductive, or photovoltaic.

No. Types Characteristics

1. Photoemmisive radiation falling into a cathode causes

electrons to be emitted from cathode
surface.

2. Photoconductive the resistance of a material is change

when it’s illuminated.

3. Photovoltaic Generate an output voltage

proportional to radiation intensity
Examples of Photoelectric Transducer

(i) The Photomultiplier Tube

(ii) Photoconductive Cells or Photocells
the electrical resistance of the materials
varies with the amount of light striking.
(iii) The Photovoltaic Cell or solar cell
- produce an electrical current when
connected to the load.
…….THE END ….
