SENSOR AND TRANSDUCER

UNIT - 2
 The main difference between a sensor and a
transducer is the output signal.

 Both a sensor and a transducer are used to sense a

change within the environment they are surrounded
by or an object they are attached to, but, a sensor will
give an output in the same format and a transducer
will convert the measurement into an electrical
signal.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SENSOR AND A
TRANSDUCER
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SENSOR
 Sensors are defined as a device which is used to
measure a physical quality - for example - light,
sound, temperature etc. and give the output in an
easy to read format for the user.

 For example a mercury thermometer; the mercury

simply expands when the temperature rises to give a
reading for the user, there are no electrical
inferences or changes.

 A thermistor also simply responds to the change in

resistance due to the temperature change.
 Different Types of Sensors:
 Temperature Sensor: It measures the changes in the
temperature. Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive
Temperature Devices), etc. are the example of temperature
sensor.

 Proximity Sensors: A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact

type sensor that detects the presence of an object. Proximity
Sensors can be implemented using different techniques like
Optical (like Infrared or Laser), Sound (Ultrasonic),
Magnetic (Hall Effect), Capacitive, etc.

 Ultrasonic Sensor: An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact

type device that can be used to measure distance as well as
velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor works based on
the properties of the sound waves with frequency greater
than that of the human audible range.
 Smoke and Gas Sensors: One of the very useful
sensors in safety related applications are Smoke and
Gas Sensors. Almost all offices and industries are
equipped with several smoke detectors, which detect
any smoke (due to fire) and sound an alarm.

 Alcohol Sensor: detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol

sensors are used in breathalyzer devices, which
determine whether a person is drunk or not. Law
enforcement personnel uses breathalyzers to catch
drunk-and-drive culprits.

 Color Sensor: is an useful device in building color

sensing applications in the field of image processing,
color identification, industrial object tracking etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSDUCER
 A transducer can measure similar qualities to a
sensor but will convert the signal from one physical
form to another meaning their input and output
signals are not the same as each other. Transducers
are sometimes referred to as energy converters.
 There are different types of transducers:

 An input transducers and output transducers. An

input transducer takes a form of energy and converts
it into an electrical signal.
 An output transducer takes electricity and converts
it into another form of energy - for example a light
bulb takes electricity and converts it to light, or a
motor converting electricity to motion.
 Classification of transducers:
 Transducers are broadly classified into three groups:

 1.Classification Based on Power Source:

 Active transducers (self-generating type):
 Active transducers are self-generating type. They do not
required electric energy. They work on the principle of
conservation of energy. The energy required for production
of an output signal is obtained from the input or physical
phenomenon being measured.
 Examples: Thermo couples, Thermoelectric and Piezo-
electric devices….etc.
 Passive transducers (Externally powered):
 Passive transducers are externally powered type. Passive
transducers are based on principle of energy controlling
and they required a secondary electrical source for
operation.
 Examples: LVDT (Linear variable differential
transformer), Thermistors, resistance thermometers, strain
gauge devices.
 2. Classification Based on Type of Output:
 Analog Transducer:

 These transducers convert the input physical

phenomenon into an analog output (analog form)
which is continuous function of time.
 Examples: Thermistor, Thermocouple, strain gauge,
LVDT.

 Digital Transducer:
 These transducers convert the input physical
phenomenon into an electrical output (digital form)
which may be in the form of pulses.
 Examples: Turbine flow meter.
 3. Classification based on the electrical
principle involved:
 Variable resistance transducer

 Variable inductance transducer

 Variable capacitance transducer

 Piezoelectric transducer

 Photo electric or light detecting transducer

i. Photo conductive
ii. Photo voltaic
iii. Photo emissive
iv. Photodiode
v. Phototransistor
 Ionization transducers.
 Advantages of electrical transducers over other
transducers:
 Mass and inertia effects are minimized
 Amplification or attenuation is minimized
 Effect of friction is minimized
 They are compact in size
 Remote indication is possible
 Power consumption is less and loading errors are
minimized.

 Limitations:
 They need external power supply
 High cost
 Instrument electrical properties may change the actual
reading of the variable which is to be measured.
 Variable resistance transducer:

 The resistive transducers are also known as resistive sensors or

variable resistance transducers. These transducers are most
frequently used for calculating different physical quantities
like pressure, vibration, temperature, force, and displacement.

 The resistance of a transducer can be changed due to the

effects of the environment.

 This transducer works on both the primary & the secondary

transducer.

 The primary transducer converts the physical quantities to a

mechanical signal whereas the secondary transducer converts
to an electrical signal directly.
 Working of Resistive Transducer:

 These transducers work on the principle of the length of a

conductor which is directly proportional to the conductor’s
resistance & it is inversely proportional to the conductor’s
area.

 So, the denominated length of the conductor is ‘L’, the area

is ‘A’ and resistance is ‘R’ and the resistivity is ‘ρ’. It is
stable for every material which is used in conductor
construction.
 From the above equation:
 ‘R’ is the resistance of the conductor.

 ‘A’ is the side view part of the conductor.

 “L’ is the conductor’s length.

 ‘ρ’ the resistivity of the conductor.

 Resistive Transducer Circuit:

 This circuit is the sliding contact device. The circuit

diagram of this is shown below. The sliding contact of this
transducer mainly includes a long conductor whose length
can be changed.

 A transducer like a potentiometer works on the sliding

contact type principle which is used to calculate linear &
angular displacement.
 Thermistor:

 A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type

of resistor whose electrical resistance varies with
changes in temperature. Although all resistors’
resistance will fluctuate slightly with temperature, a
thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature
changes.

 Metals such as Platinum, copper, tungsten and nickel

have positive temperature coefficient.
 Resistance Strain Gauge:

 A Strain gauge (resistance strain gauge) is an important

type of resistance transducer whose resistance varies with
applied force. It can be used to convert force, pressure,
tension into a change in electrical resistance. The applied
strain can be measured by this change in resistance.

 The strain gauge is versatile device and find application

in the measurement of different variables such as load,
force, thrust, pressure, torque and displacement.
 Applications of Resistive Transducer:
 The applications of resistive transducer include
potentiometer, resistance thermometer, strain gauges,
thermistor, etc.:
 These transducers are mainly used to calculate the
temperature in several applications.
 The potentiometers find application in many transducers
designed to measure pressure, force, acceleration and
liquid level.

 Disadvantages:
 When using these transducers, huge power is necessary to
move the sliding contacts. The sliding contacts can
exhaust, become uneven and produce noise.
 Advantages:
 These transducers give quick responses.

 These are available in different sizes and they have high

resistance.
 The voltage otherwise current for both the AC & DC is
suitable for calculating variable resistance.
 They are low-cost.

 Insensitivity towards vibration and temperature.

 Variable inductance transducer:
 LVDT (Linear variable differential Transducer)
 RVDT (Rotary variable differential Transducer)
 Synchros
 Resolvers

 LVDT (Linear variable differential Transducer):

 The linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) is
the most widely used inductive transducer to translate
linear motion into electrical signal.

 Construction: A differential transformer consists of a

primary winding and two secondary windings. The
windings are arranged concentrically and next to each
other. They are wound over a hollow bobbin which is
usually of a non-magnetic and insulating material, as
shown in Fig.
LVDT (Linear variable differential Transducer)
 Working:
 Any physical displacement of the core causes the
voltage of one secondary winding to increase while
simultaneously, reducing the voltage in the other
secondary winding.
 The difference of the two voltages appears across the
output terminals of the transducer and gives a measure
of the physical position of the core and hence the
displacement.
 When the core is in the neutral or zero position,
voltages induced in the secondary windings are equal
and opposite and the net output is negligible.
 Advantages of LVDT:
 The output voltage of these transducer is practically linear
for displacements upto 5 mm.
 They have infinite resolution.
 These transducers possess a high sensitivity.
 These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of
shock and vibration without any adverse
 effects.
 They are simple, light in weight, and easy to align and
maintain.

 Disadvantages of LVDT:
 Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable
differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is
possible.
 They are inherently low in power output.
 RVDT (Rotary variable differential Transducer):
 A RVDT is used to convert rectangular displacement into
electrical signal. The construction and working of RVDT
is same as that of LVDT except that is employs a cam
shaped core. This core rotates between the primary and
two secondary windings with the help of shaft.

 Synchros:
 The devices by which the angular position of shaft is
converted into electrical signal are known as synchros.
The synchros are electromagnetic transducers.
 The construction of synchro is same as a three phase
alternator. It has a stator and a rotor. The stator consists
of 3 identical stationary windings which are separated by
120° in space. These stationary windings are connected
in star (Y) configuration.
 Resolvers:
 It is an electromagnetic device which consists of two
stator windings and two rotor windings. Resolving is
nothing but converting from one co-ordinate system to
another coordinate system.
 The resolvers converts the shafts angular position into
Cartesian coordinates i.e., the angular rotor position is
converted into those signals which are proportional to the
sine and cosine of the rotor position and this is carried
out with respect to the position of the stators.
 Variable capacitance transducer:
Capacitance transducer: area change
Capacitance transducer: change in distance between the plates
 Piezoelectric transducer:
 Natural crystals: have a very low electrical leakage
when used with very high input impedance amplifiers
and permit the measurement of a slowly varying
parameter. They are, therefore, capable of withstanding
higher temperatures; operating at low frequencies and
sustaining shocks.
 Synthetic crystals: exhibit a much high output for an
applied stress and are about thousand times more
sensitive than natural crystals. However, they are
usually unable to withstand high mechanical strain
without fracture. Further, the synthetic crystals have an
accelerated rate of deterioration over the natural ones.
 Advantages of piezoelectric transducers:
 High frequency response,

 High output,

 Rugged construction

 Negligible phase shift, and

 Small size. The small size of the transducer is especially

useful for accelerometers where added mass will
mechanically load a system.

 Applications: Piezo-electric transducers are most often

used for accelerometers, pressure cells and force cells in
that order.
 Photoelectric Transducer:
 The photoelectric transducer can be defined as, a
transducer which changes the energy from the light to
electrical. It can be designed with the semiconductor
material. This transducer utilizes an element like
photosensitive which can be used for ejecting the
electrons as the light beam soak ups through it.

 Photoelectric Transducer Classification:

 These transducers are classified into five types which
include the following
 Photo emissive Cell
 Photodiode
 Phototransistor
 Photo-voltaic cell
 Photoconductive Cell
 Photo-emissive cell: These transducers operate on the
photo-emissive effect, i.e., when certain types of materials are
exposed to light, electrons readmitted and a current flow is
produced. Light sensitive photo-cathode may consist of a very
thin film of cesium deposited by isotonic onto an oxidised silver
base. Light strikes the cathode, causing the emission electrons
which are attracted towards the anode. This phenomenon
produces flow of it current in the external circuit; the current
being a function of radiant energy striking the cathode.
 Photo-conductive cell: These are the variable
resistance transducers. They on the principle of photo
conductive effect, i.e., some special type of semiconductor
oils change their resistance when exposed to light. Figure
shows schematically the construction and electrical circuit
of a photoconductive cell. The sensitive material usually
employed is cadmium selenide, germanium etc in the form
of thin coating between the two electrodes on a glass.
 Photo-voltaic cell: These transducers operate on the
photo-voltaic effect, i.e., when light's trikes a junction of
certain dissimilar metals, a potential difference is built
up. The cell consists of a metal base plate, a non-metal
semiconductor and a thin transparent metallic layer.
 Typical examples of the layers are the copper oxide on copper
and iron oxide on iron combination. The transparent layer
may be in the form of a sprayed conducting lacquer. Light
strikes the coating and generates an electric potential. The
output is, however, low and is non-linear function of the light
intensity.
 In contrasted photo-tube and photo-conductive cells, the
photo-voltaic unit is self-gene, rated and requires no voltage
source to operate it.

 Photodiode: is a semiconductor p–n junction device that

converts light into an electrical current. The current is
generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.
Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and
may have large or small surface areas. Photodiodes usually
have a slower response time as their surface area increases.
The common, traditional solar cell used to generate
electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
 A phototransistor is a bipolar or unipolar transistor
where light can reach the base, creating optically
generated carriers. This modulates the base-collector
junction resulting in an amplified current through
transistor action, which can lead to much greater
photosensitivity.
 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL PROCESSING AND
CONDITIONING
 In an analog-to-digital converter application, signal
conditioning includes voltage or current limiting
and anti-aliasing filtering.

 In control engineering applications, it is common to have

a sensing stage (which consists of a sensor), a signal
conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the
signal is done) and a processing stage (often carried out
by an ADC and a micro-controller).

 Operational amplifiers are commonly employed to carry

out the amplification of the signal in the signal
conditioning stage. In some transducers, signal
conditioning is integrated with the sensor, for example
in Hall effect sensors.