TRANSDUCERS

INTRODUCTION: A transducer is a device that converts

energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in form of energy to a signal in another
form. Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of
automation, measurement and control systems, where
electrical signals are converted to and from other physical
quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position etc).
The process of converting one form of energy into another
form is known as transduction.

Historical Background :-
Material that transduces both electric and magnetic field
were first discovered in the nineteenth century. In 1842,
James P. Joule discovered that a bar of iron would constrict
under the influence of a magnetic field, giving rise to the
term joule magnetostriction. In 1880,Jacques and Pierre
curie’s discovered that an electric charge could be
produced by applying an external mechanical force to
quartz crystals. Soon investigator learned that introducing
charge to the same crystal would produce a corresponding
mechanical strain. Through world war II the dominant
transducer material was nickel known piezoelectric
ceramic strain was relatively in significant until around
1946 when it was discovered that barium titanium could be
electrically “poled” a process similar to magnetizing a
permanent magnet.

Within the next decade, lead

zirconate titanate (PZT) was found to have properties
superior to nickel and therefore largly replaced it in sonal
and most other application.

After that metal alloy was developed with greater acoustic

power frequency, broader, bandwidth and greater
reliability.
PARTS AND WORKING ELEMENT :-
A transducer is generally made of two main parts.

1. Sensor
The sensor unit is responsible for detecting any
changes and in the physical quantity. It sense the
changes and respond to corresponding signal. It
produce an output signal which is non-electrical used
by some type of control system (transduction unit).

Good sensor obey the following rules-

➢ It is sensitive to the measured properly.

➢ It is insensitive to any other properly likely to be

encountered in its application.

➢ It does not influence the measured properly.

Example-1. Acoustical Sensor-(Microphone,Seismometer)
2.Thermal Sensor-(Thermistor, Thermocouple)
3. Light Sensor

4. Biosensor
2. Transduction Unit
Transducer unit is that part of transducer which receive
the signal from sensing unit and convert it into an
electrical signal that is proportional to the input quantity
of sensor.

➢ The sensor unit is responsible for detecting any

change in the physical quantity. The output of the
sensing unit is non-electrical in nature.

➢ The transduction unit converts the sensor’s output

into an electrical signal that proportional to the input
quantity.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL CONVERSION OF

VARIOUS QUANTITIES :-
There are various advantages of converting physical
quantities into electrical signals. Some of them are
following-
 1 The electrical signals can be easily processed using
various circuits and microcontrollers.

2 The information can be stored in the form of an

electrical signal and it can be recalled whenever it is
needed.
3 The electrical signal can be amplified, controlled and
it can displayed on a scale.

4 The electrical signal is used is to form a user friendly

interface to operate any instrument.

5 The electrical signal is efficiently processed and

helps in automating a complicated process.

TYPES OF TRANSDUCER :-
There are different types of transducers that are
classified based on various characteristics.
Based on Power Sources
Transducers can be divided into two types based on the
external power being used.
1. Active Transducers
The active Transducer does not require any external
power source to work. It utilizes the energy from the
physical change itself to operate and produce a
proportional electrical signal. Various physical
quantities can be converted into an electrical signals.
For example, a photo-voltaic cell can convert the
light energy into an electrical signal without the use of
any external power source. Similarly, a piezoelectric
crystal is sensitive to pressure change and converts
pressure into electrical energy without any external
power.

2. Passive Transducers
A passive transducer requires an external power
source to operate it converts physical quantity into
proportional resistance, capacitance, or inductance
that is further converted into an electrical signal using
an external power source. Therefore, the transducers
that work in these principles are passive transducers.
Such as potentiometer vary the resistance with a
change in position or length that is converted into
voltage and current using a power supply.
 Example of Passive transducer-

1. LVD (Linear variable differential transformer)

2. Resistance train gauge etc.

Based on Power Source

The transducer is divided into primary and secondary
types based on the output of the transducer.

1. Primary Transducer

A primary transducer converts the physical quantity

into a mechanical signal. They include mechanical as
 well as mechanical devices. The output of the primary
transducer is further converted by the secondary
transducer.

Example- Bourdon tube.

2. Secondary Transducer
A secondary transducer converts the mechanical
signal of the primary transducer into an electrical
signal. They are electrical circuits whose output signal
magnitude is proportional to the mechanical signal.
Example- LVDT
ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCER
1. Analog Transducer
An Analog transducer converts physical quantities
into an electrical signal that is Analog in nature i.e.
its magnitude is continuous with time. Its output is
continuous function. Examples of Analog and
transducers are thermistor and thermocouple.

2.Digital Transducer
An digital transducer converts physical quantities into
an electrical signal that is digital in nature i.e. the
output signal is discrete and non-continuous both in
magnitude and time. The output signal is in binary form
“1” and “0” called bits. It is used interfacing the
transducer directly with a microcontroller
Example of digital transducer- shaft encoder.
TRANSDUCER AND INVERS TRANSDUCER

1. Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts any other
form of energy or physical quantity into an
electrical signal such as a thermistor,
microphone, etc.
 2. Inverse Transducer
An inverse transducer is a type of device that
converts electrical energy into any other form of
energy. Its name suggests its function is opposite
of the transducer.
Example of an inverse transducer are speaker,
screen, servo, motor etc.

TYPES OF TRANSDUCER BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF

OPERATION
Transducer is divided into different types based on the
principles of operation.

1 Photovoltaic Transducer
A photovoltaic cell is an active transducer that converts
lights energy into electrical energy. It is made of
semiconductor material having a PN junction. When a light
particle enters the junction, it energizes the junction and
releases current into the connected load. The current is
known as photoelectric current.
It is also known as solar cells used in solar
panels. They are used for converting solar energy into
electrical energy to power electrical equipment.
 2 Photoelectric Transducer
A photoconductor transducer is a device whose
conductivity depends on the light intensity. LDR ( light
dependent resistor) is a photoconductor whose
conductivity increases with an increase in the intensity of
light. LDR can be used to convert the light intensity into an
electrical signal.
 3 Piezoelectric Transducer
A piezoelectric transducer works on the principle of the
piezoelectric effect. It generates electrical energy that is
proportional to the pressure, force and strain on it. Here
are various materials that produce the piezoelectric effect.
One of the most used substances is quartz crystal made
from silicon oxide SiO2. It produces a charge can be utilized
by connecting electrodes to its surface.
Piezoelectric transducer is used for measuring
the changes in acceleration, pressure etc. they are used in
automatic doors for sensing footstep. It is also used in a
lighter to generate necessary sparks to ignite the fuel.
Microphone also operates on piezoelectric effect to sense
the sound energy pressure and convert it into an electrical
signal.

3 Electromagnetic Induction
An inductive transducer works on the principles of
electromagnetic induction. It measures the changes in
inductance between the two coils. This can be done by the
either self-induction or mutual induction. A movable core is
used between the coils of a transducer to vary the
inductance between them. Physical quantities such as is
placement, force, torque, and acceleration can be
measured.
 4
Hall Effect Transducer
The hall effect transducer is a transducer which is
used for measuring the magnetic field by converting it
into an emf. The direct measurement of the magnetic is
not possible. Thus the hall effect transducer is used.
The transducer convert the magnetic field into an
electric quantity which is easily measured by the
analogue and digital meter.
The principle of hall effect transducer is that if the
current carrying strip of the conductor is placed in a
transducer magnetic field, then the EMF develops on
the edge of the conductor. The magnitude of develop
voltage depends on the density of flux and this properly
is called the hall effect. The hall effect element is
mainly used for magnetic measurement and for
sensing the current.
 5

Thermoelectric Transducer
It is a temperature transducer that converts thermal
energy into electrical energy. Thermocouple is a
thermoelectric transducer. It converts electrical energy
based on temperature difference between its terminals.
 6

Electrostatic Transducer
An electrostatic transducer is made of two electrodes i.e.
fixed and movable electrode charge with opposite
polarities. When the movable electrode moves, it changes
the capacitance between the electrodes that varies the
 7
applied voltage. The voltage change is proportional to the
electrode displacement.
Example –It is also known as condenser transducer.

Electromechanical Transducer
An electromechanical transducer simply work by changing
mechanical motion variation of a current or voltage. Thus
transducer are mainly used as activity mechanism within
 8
automatic control system and also as sensor of mechanical
motion within measurement and automation technology.
BASED ON QUANTITY TO BE MEASURED
There are different types of transducers used for
measuring various physical quantities.

1. Pressure Transducer
The transducer that converts the pressure exerted into
an electrical signal is called a pressure transducer. It
consists of elastic material that bends when pressure
is exerted on it. The bending is translated into an
electrical signal.
Pressure transducers are used for the following
applications-

➢ It is used to measure the pressure inside a gas tank

and detect any lake in case pressure drops.
➢ It is used for monitoring the flow of substances.
2. Temperature Transducer
The temperature converts the surrounding
temperature into an electrical signal. It can measure
the temperature as well as any changes in it. A
thermocouple, thermostat is example of a temperature
transducer measurement used for temperature.
It is used for monitoring the temperature of
equipment. It is also used to control and maintain the
temperature inside a room.

3. Ultrasonic Transducer
An ultrasonic transducer converts ultrasonic waves
into an electrical signal. The ultrasonic waves are
 reflected from a surface that is detected by this
transducer.
It is used for detecting an object in front of it. It is
also used of measuring the distance between the
object and transducer. The speed of ultrasonic waves
is equal to the speed of sound that is used in the
calculation of distance.

4. Displacement Transducer
A displacement transducer converts linear motion
or vibration into an electrical signal. It can sense
changes in displacement and also measure the precise
position of an object. It uses different principle of
operation to measure the changes in displacement
such as resistive, capacitive, and inductive etc.
An LVDT (linear variable differential
transformer), potentiometer is an example of
displacement transducer used for measuring linear
displacement.
5. Flow Transducer
A flow transducer converts the flow of a gas, liquid
into an electrical signal. It is used measuring the flow
velocity of any gas or liquid.

6. Inductive Transducer
 An inductive transducer works on the principle of
electromagnetic to detect a change in its self
inductance. It has a coil that develops a magnetic field
due to its own current flow. When an object such as
metal comes in its magnetic field, its inductance varies
that is detected by a defecting needle.
It is used in proximity sensors, detectors,
object counters, etc.

7. Strain Gauge Transducer

A strain gauge transducer converts physical
quantity like mechanical stress or strain into an
 electrical signal. It is made of an elastic material with
trace of conductor that does not break when force is
applied on it. It works on the principle of change in
electrical conductivity or resistivity of the conductor.
When force is applied, it bends and the conductor
lengthens and gets narrower. Therefore, the resistivity
of the conductor changes. The changes in resistivity is
translated into the electrical signal using a formula
that is proportional to the stress applied on it.
Strain gauge transducers are mainly used
measuring using stress and strain in the field of civil
engineering.

8. Acceleration Transducer
Acceleration transducer or accelerometer is a
transducer that converts the acceleration of a body
into an electrical signal. It can sense the changes in
velocity. Accelerometer uses various operating
principles.
Acceleration is caused when force is applied
on a object. A piezoelectric crystal can sense the force
acting on it and generate an electrical signal
proportional to the force. Therefore. It can translate the
acceleration into an electrical signal.
Characteristics of Transducer
There are some characteristics of transducer that
determines performance of a transducer. It is divided into
two types:-

➢ Static Characteristics
➢ Dynamic Characteristics
Static Characteristics
These characteristics do not depend or vary with variation
in the input signal or with time. Here are some of the static
characteristics.

➢ Accuracy
The accuracy of a transducer is the maximum
difference between its actual value and the indicated
value. It is expressed in a percentage of the actual
value. A transducer must have high accuracy to
measure physical quantity accurately.

➢ Linearity
The ability of a device to vary its output linearly with the
input signal is called linearity. The output is in
proportional with the input signal. A transducer having
linearity has a more accurate reading and it can easily
translate the signal to its corresponding output value.
➢ Robust
A transducer must be able to withstand extreme
environmental conditions and mechanical stress. A
rugged and robust transducer’s performance is not
affected by its environment.

➢ Repeatability
 The ability of a transducer to generate an identical
output signal multiple times when applied with the
same input signal. The output signal must repeat itself
and do not vary with time.

➢ Stability
The capability of a transducer to provide a stable output
and does not fluctuate.

➢ Sensitivity
The ability of a device to sense the smallest change in a
physical quantity and translate efficiently into an
electrical signal is called sensitivity. A device having
higher sensitivity can measure more accurately and
precisely.

➢ Size
A transducer having a small size is crucial for
installing compact device without taking much space.

Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of a transducer are dependent
of time and they may vary little. Here are some of the
dynamic characteristics of a transducer-

➢ Dynamic Range
 Range of lowest to highest level that can be
reproduced by a system. System with a high dynamic
range will be quite than one with a low dynamic range.
Dynamic range is measured with the decibel.

➢ Error
The error is the difference between the measured
reading and the actual reading. The error can be
caused by various factors.

➢ Speed
The speed of a transducer plays a vital role in its
performance as it shows how quickly it translate a
physical quantity into a stable electrical signal.

➢ Noise
Noise is a random unwanted signal that distorts and
inflicts error in the original signal. A transducer adds
nose in its signal. A low amplitude signal is more
affected by no than a high amplitude signal.

➢ Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the ability of a device whose output not
only depends on its current input but the previous input
as well.
➢ Efficiency of Transducer
The efficiency of a transducer is the ratio of output
power to input power. The percentage efficiency of a
transducer is never 100% as some of the energy is
wasted during the process of conversion. For example,
the efficiency of a photovoltaic cell us below 30%. Most
of the energy is wasted in the form of heat and
reflection.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF

TRANSDUCER-

Here are some advantages of Transducer

 1. The electrical signal of a transducer can be easily
and quickly processed using electrical circuits
and microprocessors.

2. It requires energy to control electrical signals

thus more energy efficient.

3. The electrical signal is easier to transmit and

receive over long distances.

4. The electrical signal can be easily amplified,

added, mixed with other signals.

5. Modern tech is becoming smaller and more

compact day by day. Thus electrical signal can be
processed and stored using very small gadgets
and devices.

6. There are no mechanical parts involved, thus it

reduces the mechanical wear and tear problem.

Here are some disadvantages of Transducer

 1. some transducers especially the more accurate
ones are relatively very expensive.

2. Transducer reliable as compared to mechanical

instruments in long-term use.

3. Noise in an electrical signal can affect the accuracy

of the measurement.

4. The battery-operated transducer’s performance is

affected by the charge remaining in the energy.

Applications of Electrical Transducers:-

Medical Equipment
Electrical transducers are used in various medical devices such
as blood pressure monitors, ECG machines, ultrasound
machines, and patient monitors. These devices use electrical
transducers to measure and convert physiological signals into
electrical signals.

Automotive Industry
In the automotive industry, electrical transducers are used to
measure various physical quantities such as temperature,
pressure, and speed. They are used in fuel injection systems,
engine management systems, and emission control systems.

Industrial Automation
Electrical transducers are used in industrial automation
systems to measure physical quantities such as displacement,
force, and pressure. These transducers are used to monitor and
control the various processes in manufacturing plants.

Aerospace Industry
Electrical transducers are used in the aerospace industry to
measure various physical quantities such as temperature,
pressure, and acceleration. They are used in flight control
systems, navigation systems, and engine monitoring systems.

Environmental Monitoring
Electrical transducers are used in environmental monitoring
systems to measure physical quantities such as temperature,
humidity, and air quality. These transducers are used in weather
stations, air pollution monitoring systems, and water quality
monitoring systems.
Consumer Electronics
Electrical transducers are used in consumer electronics such
as smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices to measure
physical quantities such as acceleration, orientation, and
magnetic field strength. These transducers are used to provide
various functionalities such as auto-rotation of screens and
navigation.

Robotics
Electrical transducers are used in robotics to measure physical
quantities such as force, torque, and position.
These transducers enable robots to interact with their
environment and perform tasks with precision.

Energy Management
Electrical transducers are used in energy management systems
to measure physical quantities such as voltage, current, and
power. These transducers are used in smart meters, energy
monitoring systems, and renewable energy systems.

Security Systems
Electrical transducers are used in security systems to detect
physical quantities such as motion, temperature, and sound.
These transducers are used in burglar alarms, fire alarms, and
surveillance systems.
Sports And Fitness
Electrical transducers are used in sports and fitness equipment
to measure physical quantities such as heart rate, blood oxygen
level, and movement. These transducers are used in fitness
trackers, smartwatches, and other wearable devices.

Materials Testing
Electrical transducers are used in materials testing to measure
physical quantities such as strain, stress, and pressure. These
transducers are used in testing equipment for materials such as
metals, plastics, and composites.

Agriculture
Electrical transducers are used in agriculture to measure
physical quantities such as soil moisture, temperature, and pH.
These transducers are used in irrigation systems, crop
monitoring systems, and soil testing equipment.

Recent Advancement In Transducer

 Electrical transducer have been significantly advanced over
the year ,with improvements in technology and materials leading
to increased accuracy, sensibility and reliability. Some of the
advancements in electrical transducer include:-

1.Miniaturization
Electrical transducer have become smaller and more compact,
allowing them to be used in application where space is limited,
such as in medical devices and consumer electronics.

2.Wireless Communication
Transducer can now transmit data wirelessly, enabling remote
monitoring and control of various processes. This has
application in fields such as environmental monitoring, home
automation and industrial automation.

3.Integration With Microprocessor

Electrical transducer can now be integrated with
microprocessor, allowing for real time data processing and
feedback control. This has application in field such as robotics
aerospace and automotive industries.

4.Improved Sensitivity
Electrical transducer has become more sensitive allowing for
the measurement of smaller changes in physical parameter.
This has application in field such as material testing research
and development.

5.Improved Durability
Transducer have become more durable with the use of advance
materials such as silicon ceramic and metal alloy. This has
application in aerospace defence and industrial automation.

➢Expected future scopes:-

The future scope of electrical transducer is expected to be
shaped with continued advancements and improvement
expected in the following areas:-

1.Smart Transducer
Electrical transducer with built-in microprocessor and wireless
communication capabilities are expected to become more
widespread. This will allow for real time data processing and
feedback control ,leading to increased automation and
efficiency.

2.Energy Harvesting
Electrical transducer that can harvest energy from their
environment such as solar or thermal energy are expected to
become more common .this will reduce the need for external
power sources making them suitable for remote and portable
application.

3.Biomedical Application
Electrical transducer that can interface with the human body
such as implantable device are expected to become more
advanced. this will reduce have application in field such as
neurology cardiology and rehabilitation.

4.Internet Of Things (IOT)

Electrical transducer that can communication with other devices
and system through the internet are expected to become more
widespread. This will allow for greater connectivity and
automation in virous field.

5.Wearable technology
Electrical transducer are expected to play an important role in
wearable technology. they can be used for measuring various
physiological parameters such as heart rate, blood pressure and
oxygen saturation. This data can be used for monitoring health
and wellness, sports performance and rehabilitation.

6.Artificial Intelligence
Electrical transducer can be integrated with artificial intelligent
algorithm to provide advanced data processing and decision
making capabilities. this has application in field of robotics,
aerospace and automotive industries.

7.Renewable Energy
Transducer will be used for monitoring and controlling
renewable energy system such as solar panel and wind
turbines. These transducer will be used to optimize energy
generation and distribution, making renewable energy more
efficient and reliable.
In conclusion , electrical transducer are expected to play an
increasing important role in various field due to their
advancement and future scope. they are expected to become
more integrated with other technologies such as artificial
intelligence. The use of advanced materials and non-invasive
measurement technique is expected to lead to further
improvements in their sensitivity and durability. The integration
of electrical transducer us the renewable energy can also lead to
more efficiency and reliable energy distribution.