DISPLACEMENT VELOCITY AND

ACCELERATION
MEASUREMENT

UNIT 5
 Resistive Transducer Circuit (Resistive Potentiometer):

 This circuit is the sliding contact device. The circuit diagram of

this is shown below. The sliding contact of this transducer
mainly includes a long conductor whose length can be
changed.

 A transducer like a potentiometer works on the sliding

contact type principle which is used to calculate linear &
angular displacement.
 LVDT (Linear variable differential Transducer):
 The linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) is
the most widely used inductive transducer to translate
linear motion into electrical signal.

 Construction: A differential transformer consists of a

primary winding and two secondary windings. The
windings are arranged concentrically and next to each
other. They are wound over a hollow bobbin which is
usually of a non-magnetic and insulating material, as
shown in Fig.
LVDT (Linear variable differential Transducer)
 Working:
 Any physical displacement of the core causes the
voltage of one secondary winding to increase while
simultaneously, reducing the voltage in the other
secondary winding.
 The difference of the two voltages appears across the
output terminals of the transducer and gives a measure
of the physical position of the core and hence the
displacement.
 When the core is in the neutral or zero position,
voltages induced in the secondary windings are equal
and opposite and the net output is negligible.
 Advantages of LVDT:
 The output voltage of these transducer is practically linear
for displacements upto 5 mm.
 They have infinite resolution.
 These transducers possess a high sensitivity.
 These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of shock
and vibration without any adverse
 effects.
 They are simple, light in weight, and easy to align and
maintain.

 Disadvantages of LVDT:
 Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable
differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is
possible.
 They are inherently low in power output.
 Electromagnetic Transducer:
 When a moving conductor of length l or a single-turn coil
of the same length moves with a velocity ds/dt across and
perpendicular to the lines of magnetic flux of density B,
an emf is generated in the conductor (coil) which is given
by Faraday’s law as e=Bl ds/dt.
 Now l ds represents an area through which the flux lines
cross during the time dt, and Bl ds is the corresponding
differential flux d through that area. The emf generated
corresponding to N turns is

 Accordingly, the magnitude of the emf depends on the

rate of crossing the lines of magnetic flux. This
transduction mechanism is utilized in a velocity-
measuring transducer.
Electromagnetic Transducers. (a) Linear velocity transducer (LVT).
(b) Flow velocity transducer.
 Figure a shows two coils L1 and L2, which are connected
in phase opposition. The measurand is linked to the
permanent magnet, which slides freely in the coils.
 The rate of movement of the magnet determines the
velocity of the measurand. The output voltage is
proportional to the velocity for all positions of the
magnet. These transducers are known as linear velocity
transducers (LVTs).
 Another application of this transduction mechanism is in
sensing the flow velocity V of an electrically conducting
fluid as shown in Fig. b. the flow is into the plane of the
paper. The magnetic field is normal to the flow.
 The emf is generated along the diameter a-b normal to
the flow and the magnetic field B. The voltage across the
electrodes inserted into the flow at a and b is
proportional to the flow velocity.
 Mechanical tachometer:
 A purely mechanical instrument to give a display of
rotational speed or values having a relationship to speed
(i.e. baking hours, sheets per hour,etc.) at or near the
point of measurement.

 Why use a Mechanical Tachometer?

 A dependable robust form of speed indication which is
cost effective and simple to maintain.
 Where local indication of speed or speed related values
are desirable for production operatives, or for quick
visual monitoring of a production process.
 Where electrical supply is not present or is unreliable or
does not warrant the cost of a full electrical system.
Where the minimization of electricity is desirable i.e.
hazardous areas.
 Non-contact speed sensors:
 These enable speeds to be read with the highest accuracy
in the most severe environment. Depending on the
application, we can offer sensors with various
measurement principles in a wide variety of styles and
connection types.

 Hand-held instruments:
 hand-held instruments record rotational speeds and
running length. There is a choice of non-contact
measurement by means of light and a reflective mark
applied on the object to be measured, or contact
measurement with special attachments for various
applications.
Working Principle of Mechanical Tachometer:
 Electric Tachometer:

 An Electric Tachometer works on the principle of relative

motion between the magnetic field and shaft of the
coupled device. The motor of tachometer works as a
generator, i.e. it produces the voltage based on the
velocity of the shaft.
 It counts the number of rotations the crankshaft is
making per minute. It is essential for the user to know
the RPM of the engine and its operating range to avoid
unnecessary damages. The device works on either an
alternating or direct current.
 Application:
 It is used to measure rotational speed.

 It can measure the flow of liquid with the help of an

attached wheel with an inclined angle.
 It is applicable for the medical sector to measure the
blood flow rate of the patients.
 It is used in vehicles to display the rate of engine
crankshaft rotation.
 Photoelectric Tachometer:
 The tachometer which uses the light for measuring the
speed of rotation of shaft or disc of machines is known as
the photoelectric tachometer.

 Construction:
 The opaque disc with holes on its periphery, light source
and laser are the essential parts of the photoelectric
tachometer.
 The tachometer consists the opaque disc which is
mounted on the shaft whose speed needs to be
measured. The disc consists the equivalent holes around
the periphery. The light source is placed on one side of
the disc and the light sensor on the other side. They are
in line with each other.
 Working:
 When the disc rotates their holes, and the opaque
portion comes alternatively between the light source and
light sensor. When the holes come in the line of the light
source and the light sensor, then the light passes
through the holes and collapse to the sensor. Hence the
pulse is generated. These pulses are measured through
the electric counter.
 When the opaque portion comes in the line of light source
and sensor, then the disc blocked the light source, and
the output becomes zero. The production of pulses
depends on the following factor.
 1. The number of holes on the disc.
 2. The speed of rotation of the disc.
 The holes are fixed, and hence the pulse generation
depends on the speed of the rotation of the disc. The
electronic counter is used for measuring the pulse rate.
 Advantages of Photoelectric Tachometer:
 The digital output voltage is obtained, and hence there is
no need of analogue to digital conversion.
 The pulses of constant amplitude are obtained which
simplify the electronic circuitry.
 Disadvantages of Photoelectric Tachometer:
 The life of the light source is approximately 50,000
hours. Hence the light source needs to be replaced
timely.
 The accuracy of this method depends on the error which
is represented by the unit pulse. These errors can be
minimized by using the gating period. The gating period
means the meter measures the frequency by counting
the input pulses.
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer:
 A piezoelectric accelerometer utilizes the piezoelectric
effect of certain materials to measure dynamic changes
in mechanical variables, such as mechanical shock,
vibration and acceleration.
 Like other transducers, piezoelectric accelerometers
convert one form of energy into another and provide an
electrical signal in response to the condition, property or
quantity.
 Acceleration acts upon a seismic mass that is restrained
by a spring or suspended on a cantilever beam, and
converts a physical force into an electrical signal.
 Working Principle of Piezoelectric Accelerometer:

 A piezoelectric accelerometer consists of a mass attached

to a piezoelectric crystal which is mounted on a case.
When the accelerometer body is subjected to vibration,
the mass on the crystal remains undisturbed in space
due to inertia. As a result, the mass compresses and
stretches the piezoelectric crystal. This force is
proportional to acceleration in accordance with Newton’s
second law, F = ma, and generates a charge.
 The charge output is then converted into low impedance
voltage output with the help of electronics.
 Benefits of Piezoelectric Accelerometer:
 The key benefits of piezoelectric accelerometers are:

 Wide frequency range

 No moving parts

 Excellent linearity over their dynamic range

 Low output noise

 Self-generating - no external power required

 Acceleration signal can be integrated to provide velocity

and displacement
 Applications:
 Major applications of piezoelectric accelerometers
include:
 Engine testing - Combustion and dynamic stressing
 Ballistics - Combustion, explosion, and detonation
 Industrial/factory - Machining systems, metal cutting,
and machine health monitoring
 Original equipment manufacturer - Transportation
systems, rockets, machine tools, engines, flexible
structures, and shock/vibration testers
 Engineering - Dynamic response testing, shock and
vibration isolation, auto chassis structural testing,
structural analysis, reactors, control systems and
materials evaluation
 Aerospace - Ejection systems, rocketry, landing gear
hydraulics, shock tube instrumentation, wind tunnel and
modal testing.
 Seismic Transducer:
 The seismic transducer is used for measuring the
vibration of the ground. The spring mass damper
element and the displacement transducer are the two
main component of the seismic transducer.
 The mass that connected to the damper element and
spring without any other support is known as spring
mass damper element.
 And the displacement transducer converts the
displacement into the electrical quantity. The seismic
transducer is used for measuring the earth vibration,
volcanic eruption and other vibrations etc.
 Construction of Seismic Transducer:
 The systematic diagram of the seismic transducer is
shown in the figure below. The mass is connected by the
help of the damper and spring to the housing. The
housing frame is connected to the source whose
vibrations need to be measured.
 The arrangement is kept in such a way so that the
position of the mass remains same in the space. Such
type of arrangement is kept for causing the relative
motion between the housing frame and the mass. The
term relative motion means one of the objects remains
stationary, and the other is in motion concerning the
first one. The displacement that occurs between the two
is sensed and represented by the transducer.
 Mode of Transducer:
 1.Displacement Mode
 2. Acceleration Mode
 The selection of the mode depends on the combinations of
the mass, spring and damper combinations. The large
mass and soft spring are used for the displacement mode
measurement while the combination of the small mass
and stiff spring is used for the acceleration mode.

 Types of Seismic Transducer:

 1. Vibrometer – The vibrometer or low-frequency meter
is used for measuring the displacement of the body. It
also measures the high frequency of the vibrating body.
Their frequency range depends on the natural frequency
and the damping system.
 2. Accelerometer – The accelerometer measures the
acceleration of the measuring body. The acceleration
shows the total force acting on the object.