1.

Displacement Measurement:
a. Potentiometer
b. LVDT.
2. Strain Measurement:
a. Strain gauges
3. Measurement of Angular Velocity:
a. Tachometers
b. Stroboscopic Methods.
4. Acceleration Measurement:
a. Accelerometer
1. Potentiometer

ei= Input voltage

eo= Output voltage
Xi = Input displacement
Xt = Total displacement
1. It is resistive potentiometer or Pot. Variable R transducer based the operation on change
in resistance due to displacement. It consists of resistive element provided with sliding
contact called as wiper.

2. There are 2 Types of potentiometers:-

-Translational resistive elements are straight devices having stroke of 2 mm to 0.5 mm.

- Rotational devices are circular in shape and used for angular measurement from 100 to
3570 scale.

The resistive element of a pot may be excited with AC or DC supply.A thin wire of
platinum or nickel alloy is carefully wound on insulated former.

Let ei & eo = i/p and o/p voltages respectively.

Xt = total length of translational pot .

Xi = displacement of wiper from zero position

Rp= total resistance of the potentiometer.

 Advantages:-

1. They are inexpensive.

2. They are simple to operate.

3. High electrical efficiency.

Disadvantages:-

1. Linear potentiometer may require large force to move wiper.

2. Wiper may get contaminate or worn out.

2. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Introduction of LVDT:-

1. The Linear Variable Inductive Transformer converts the linear displacement into an
electrical signal.

2. It works on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., the flux of the primary winding is
induced to the secondary winding.

3. The output of the transformer is obtained because of the difference of the secondary
voltages, and hence it is called a differential transformer.
Construction of LVDT:-

1. As shown in fig. LVDT consist of a primary winding and two secondary windings S1 and
S2. The secondary winding is wound on the cylindrical former. The secondary windings
have an equal number of turns, and it is placed identically on both the side of the primary
winding.

2. The output voltage of the secondary winding S1 is ES1 and that of the S2 is ES2.

3. The output voltage of the transducer is determined by subtracting the voltage of the
secondary windings.

Working of LVDT:-

1. Condition-I:

i. When the soft core moved towards left The output voltage of the winding S1 is more than
the S2.

ii. Since ES1 >ES2, E0 is positive. So E0 is in phase with the primary voltage.

2. Condition-II:

i. When the soft iron core move towards right. The output voltage of the winding S1 is less
than the S2.

ii. Since ES1 <ES2, E0 is negative. The output voltage E0 is 180 0 out of phase with the
primary winding.

3. Condition-III:

i. When the soft iron core is at the centre of S1 and S2.The output voltage of the winding
S1 is equal to S2.

ii. So E0= ES1 -ES2 =0 V

Advantages:-

1. They have high range (1.25 mm to 250 mm)

2. It is frictionless and has electrical isolation.

3. It has high output and high sensitivity.

4. Low power consumption.

Disadvantages:-

1. Relatively large displacement is needed.

2. Temperature may affect performance.

Uses of LVDT:-

1. It is used for measuring the displacement having a range from few mm to cm. The LVDT
directly converts the displacement into an electrical signal.

2. The LVDT is used as a device for measuring the force, weight and pressure.

3. Some of the LVDT used for measuring the load and pressure.

3. Strain Measurement with Strain Gauge:-

Strain Measurement

1. Strain is defined as the change in length of a line segment between two points divided by
the original length of the segment.

Strain Gauges
1. A strain gauge is a device which is used to measured dimensional change on the surface
of the structural member under test.
2. Strain gauges given indication of strain at only one point.
3. Strain gauges are mostly used to measure strains on the free surface of a body.

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge:-

1. Strain Gauge is a passive transducer that converts a mechanical elongation or

displacement produced due to a force into its corresponding change in resistance (R) or
electrical signal.
2. If a metal piece is subjected to a tensile stress, the metal length will increase and thus
will increase the electrical resistance of the material. Similarly, if the metal is subjected to
compressive stress, the length will decrease, but the width will increase.
Structure of Strain Gages:-

A universal strain gage has a structure such that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin
metallic resistive foil (3 to 6µm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to 16µm
thick) and is laminated with a thin film.

Sensitivity of a strain gauge:-

The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a characteristic called the gauge
factor, defined as unit change in resistance per unit change in length.

Δ𝑅/R
Δ𝑙/𝑙

Where,
K = the gauge factor
R = the initial resistance in ohms
∆R = the change in initial resistance in ohms
L = the initial length in meters
∆ L = the change in initial length in meters
 Working of Strain Gauge:-

• Working of Strain Gauge:-

Wheatstone Bridge:-

1. The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit. The change in resistance
is proportional to applied strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.
2. Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit suitable for detection of minute resistance
changes, therefore used to measure resistance changes of a strain gage
3. The bridge is configured by combining four resistors as shown in Figure. Initially
R1=R2=R3=R4, in this condition no output voltage is there, e=0
4. When one of the Resistances is replaced by strain Gauge attached to the object whose
strain is to be measured and load is applied, then there is small change in the resistance
of gauge, hence some output voltage is there which can be related to strain as

5. From this, strain can be easily determined using the relation

Advantages:-
1. It has high accuracy and good stability.

2. Easy to fabricate and install.

3. They can withstand high temperature.

4. It consumes very less power.

5. Good repeatability.

6. Its output is very high.

Disadvantages:-
1. It is non-linear.

2. It needs to be calibrated.

Applications:-
Strain gauges are used in the following applications

1. Residual stress measurement

2. Vibration measurement

3. Torque measurement

4. Bending and deflection measurement

5. Compression and tension measurement

6. Strain measurement

4. Speed Measurement

i) DC Tachometer:-

1. It consists of small armature which is coupled to a machine whose speed is to be

measured.

2. This armature revolves in the field of a permanent magnet.

3. The emf generated is proportional to the flux and speed.

 4. This emf is measured with the help of moving coil voltmeter.

5. A resistance is used in series in the circuit for limiting current from generator.

Advantages:-

1. Direction of rotation is directly indicated by polarity of out put voltage.

2. Output is typically 10 V/rpm that can be easily measured by conventional DC

tachometers.

Disadvantages:-

1. Brushes and commutator requires periodic maintenance.

ii) AC Tachometer:-

1. It has rotating magnet which may be permanent magnet or electromagnet.

2. Rotation of magnet causes an emf to be induced in the stator coil.

3. Amplitude and frequency of emf produced is proportional to speed of rotation.

4. The output voltage produced is rectified by rectifier.

Stroboscope:-

1. Basically it is an instrument having source of variable frequency flashing light.

2. This frequency can be manually adjusted.

3. A distinctive mark is made on shaft or on a disc attached to the shaft.

4. A stroboscopic effect is made by flashing alight on that mark.

5. Under these conditions flashing frequency is equal to speed of shaft.

6. The scale of stroboscope is calibrated in terms of speed.

7. Speed of shaft is

n= f/m
Where, f = number of flashes per second

m = number of point marks

Advantages:-

1. This method imposes no load on shaft.

2. Requires no special attachment with shaft.
3. Useful when there is no contact can be made with shaft

Disadvantages:-

1. Cannot be used where the ambient light is not available.

5. Acceleration Measurement

Potentiometric type Accelerometer:-

1. This is the simplest type of accelerometer.

2. The seismic mass is attached to wiper of accelerometer.

3. The relative motion of mass with respect to transducer frame is sensed either as a change
in resistance or change in voltage output.

4. Proper damping is necessary because it increases the range of frequencies.

5. As this instrument is using resistance potentiometer divider which has a limited

resolution.

6. Hence these type of accelerometers are used for low frequency up to 50 Hz.