UNIT II

Chapter VI

Types of Transducers

By
Mrs. Rijhi Dey
Assistant Professor
ECE Dept.
Contact No. : 9831854812
 Contents

1) Strain Gauge
2) Piezo-electric Transducer
3) LVDT
4) Temperature Transducers – 1. Thermocouple
2. RTD
5) Pressure Transducers – 1. Bourden Tube
2. Diaphragm
6) Flow Transducers – 1. Rotameter
2. Orifice
7) Level Transducers – 1. Ultrasonic
2. Capacitive
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 Strain Gauge
Strain Gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object.
 As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical
resistance to change.
This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is
related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
Principle
 A strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force.
Operation
 When the load or weight is acting on the strain gauge element, it
deforms.
 The deformation in element causes the change in resistance of it. As per
the balance and unbalance condition of the bridge, the voltmeter shows
the output voltage.
 The output voltage is proportional to the change in resistance of the
strain gauge elements and that change in resistance is proportional to
the weight acting on it.
 Therefore, the output voltage varies 3with the weight.
Mathematical Derivation

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 Mathematical Derivation

1 – resistance change due to change of length

2v – resistance change due to change in area i.e. Poisson’s ratio
(Δρ/ρ)ε – resistance change due to piezo resistive effect
The strain is usually expressed in terms of micro strain. 1 micro strain = 1 μm/m.
If the change in the value of resistivity of a material when strained is neglected,
the gauge factor is:
Gf=1+2v
The common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3. This gives a gauge factor
of 1.6 for wire wound strain gauges. Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 &
0.5. This gives a value of 2.

Example –A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of small diameter.
The gauge factor is +4.2. Neglecting the piezo resistive effects, calculate the
Poisson's ratio.

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Advantages
• High sensitivity to input
• Low cost
• Small size
• Simple control
• Fast response
• Available in wide range

Disadvantages
• Errors
• They are affected by external vibrations and temperature

Applications
• In weight measurement applications
• In die cutting applications
• In some medical applications
• As a Load Cell
• In torque meters
• In diaphragm pressure gauge
• In accelerometers 6
• In flow meters
Strain Gauge

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 Piezo-electric Transducer
The Piezoelectric effect, is the ability of certain materials to generate an AC
voltage when subjected to mechanical stress or vibration, or to vibrate when
subjected to an AC voltage, or both.
The most common Piezo-Electric material used is Quartz (Crystal).
The piezoelectric transducer is used for the measurement of force, pressure,
very small displacement, vibrations and sound waves.
Principle
 The main principle of a piezoelectric transducer is that a force, when applied
on the quartz crystal, produces electric charges on the crystal surface.
 The Piezoelectric transducer is also known to be mechanically stiff.
 The Piezoelectric Transducer can measure pressure in the same way a force
or acceleration can be measured.
Operation
 When any pressure or force exerted on the crystal, it converts it into
proportional output electrical signal.
 It is also known as inverse transducer due to its reverse inherent
characteristics.
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 If any electrical signal is supplied to crystal, it converts it into some physical
movement.
Advantages
• Very high frequency response.
• Self-generating, so no need of external source.
• Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range.
• Barium titanate and quartz can be made in any desired shape and form. It
also has a large dielectric constant. The crystal axis is selectable by
orienting the direction of orientation.
Disadvantages
• The piezoelectric transducer is used for dynamic measurement only.
• It has high temperature sensitivity.
• Some crystals are water soluble and get dissolve in high humid environment.
Applications
• Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an
accelerometer, where the output is in the order of (1-30) mV per gravity of
acceleration.
• The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that both
tensional and compression force measurements can be made.
• It can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in terms of
voltage 9
Piezo-electric Transducer

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
LVDT is an inductive type passive transducer.
It measures force in terms of displacement of ferromagnetic
core of a transformer.
 It converts translational or linear displacement into electrical
voltage.
It is also known as Linear Variable Differential Transducer.
Principle
 It is based on the principle of electro-magnetic induction.

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Construction

• LVDT consist of cylindrical transformer where it is surrounded by one

primary winding in the center of the former and two secondary windings
at the sides.
• The number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but
they are opposite to each other.
• The primary winding is connected to the ac source.
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• A movable soft iron core slides within hollow former and therefore
affects magnetic coupling between primary and two secondary.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Operation
• When the iron core lies at the center of both secondary, the
output differential voltage remains unaffected and have zero
magnitude.
• When the core moves towards secondary-1, it induces more emf
across it and less emf across secondary-2. Let’s assume that it is
positive displacement. Due to more flux links with the secondary-1
than secondary-2.
• When the core moves towards secondary-2, it induces more emf
across it and less emf across secondary-1. Lt’s assume that it is
negative displacement. Due to more flux links with the secondary-2
than secondary-1.
• The output differential voltage is proportional to the
displacement of the iron core.
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Advantages
• High range (1.25 mm to 250 mm)
• No frictional losses
• High input and high sensitivity
• Low hysteresis
• Low power consumption
• Direct conversion to electrical signals
Disadvantages
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require
a setup to protect them from stray magnetic fields.
• They are affected by vibrations and temperature.
Applications
• It is used where displacements ranging from fraction of mm to
few cm are to be measured. It acts as primary transducer.
• They can also act as secondary transducer. E.g. the bourdon tube
which acts as primary transducer 14and convert pressure into linear
displacement then LVDT converts it into electrical signal.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)

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LVDT Output Voltage

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 LVDT Example No1
A linear variable differential transformer has a stroke length of ±150mm and
produces a resolution of 40mV/mm. Determine:
a) the LVDT’s maximum output voltage,
b) the output voltage when the core is moved 120mm from its null position,
c) the core position from center when the output voltage is 3.75 volts,
d) the change in output voltage when the core is moved from +80mm to -80mm
displacement.
a) The maximum output voltage, VOUT
If 1mm of movement produces 40mV, then 150mm of movement produces:
VOUT = 40mV x 150mm = 0.04 x 150 = ±6 Volts
b) VOUT with 120mm of core displacement
If a core displacement of 150mm produces an output of 6 volts, then a
movement of 120mm produces:

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 LVDT Example No1
c). Core position when VOUT = 3.75 volts

d). Voltage change from +80mm to -80mm displacement

Thus the output voltage changes from +3.2 volts to -3.2 volts as the core moves
from +80mm to -80mm respectively.

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 Thermocouple
The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It uses for
measuring the temperature at one particular point. In other words,
it is a type of transducer used for measuring the temperature in
the form of an electric current or the EMF.

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 Thermocouple
The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three
effects.
See-back Effect – The See-back effect occurs between two
different metals. When the heat provides to any one of the metal,
the electrons start flowing from hot metal to cold metal. Thus,
direct current induces in the circuit.
Peltier Effect – The Peltier effect is the inverse of the See-back
effect. The Peltier effect state that the temperature difference
can be created between any two different conductors by applying
the potential difference between them.
Thompson Effect – The Thompson effect state that when two
dissimilar metals join together and if they create two junctions
then the voltage induces the entire length of the conductor
because of the temperature gradient. The temperature gradient is
a physical term which shows the direction and rate of change of
temperature at a particular location.
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 Thermocouple
The thermocouple consists two dissimilar metals. These metals
are welded together at the junction point. This junction considers
as the measuring point.
The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the
equation,
E = a(∆θ) + b(∆θ)2
Where Δθ – temperature difference between the hot
thermocouple junction and the reference thermocouple junction.
a, b – constants.
Depending on the metal wires used, a thermocouple is capable of
measuring temperature in the range –200°C to +2500°C.

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 Problem #1Thermocouple
A copper constantan thermocouple has constant a = 37.5 µV/K and
b=0.0045 µV/K . Determine the emf developed by the thermocouple
when its hot junction is at 200ºC and cold junction is kept in ice.
Soln: Temperature of hot junction (T) = 200+273 = 473K
Temperature of cold junction (T0) = 0+273 = 273K
E = a(∆θ) + b(∆θ)2
E = 8.17mV

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance
Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device used to determine
the temperature by measuring the resistance of an electrical
wire.
This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor.
 If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, an RTD
is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a
wide range of temperatures.
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the
temperature is given as,

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at tºC and t0ºC

temperatures. α and β are the constants depends on the metals.

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small
range of temperature, the expression can be,

Where α is RTD constant, Ro is resistance at known temperature t0.

In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used
metals. These three metals are having different resistance
variations with respective to the temperature variations.
Platinum has the temperature range of -100ºC to 650ºC, and then
the Copper and Nickel have -60ºC to 120ºC and -180ºC to 300ºC
respectively.

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Bourdon Tube or Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Bourdon Tubes are known for its very high range of differential
pressure measurement in the range of almost 100,000 psi (700
MPa).
It is an elastic type pressure transducer.
The device was invented by Eugene Bourdon in the year 1849.
The basic idea behind the device is that, cross-sectional tubing
when deformed in any way will tend to regain its circular form
under the action of pressure.
The bourdon pressure gauges used today have a slight elliptical
cross-section and the tube is generally bent into a C-shape or arc.
Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of ±2% of
span, and a special high-precision gauge can be as accurate as
0.1% of full scale.

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Diagram of Bourdon Tube

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 Construction of Bourdon Tube
The main parts of this instrument is an elastic transducer,
which is a bourdon tube which is fixed and open at one end
to receive the pressure which is to be measured.
The other end of the bourdon tube is free and closed.
The cross-section of the bourdon tube is elliptical.
The bourdon tube is in a bent form to look like a circular
arc.
To the free end of the bourdon tube is attached an
adjustable link, which is in turn connected to a sector and
pinion.
To the shaft of the pinion is connected a pointer which
sweeps over a pressure calibrated scale.

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 Working of Bourdon Tube
The pressure to be measured is connected to the fixed open end of
the bourdon tube.
The applied pressure acts on the inner walls of the bourdon tube.
Due to the applied pressure, the bourdon tube tends to change in
cross-section from elliptical to circular.
This tends to straighten the bourdon tube causing a displacement
of the free end of the bourdon tube.
This displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon tube is
proportional to the applied pressure.
 As the free end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link –
section – pinion arrangement, the displacement is amplified and
converted to a rotary motion of the pinion.
As the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a new position
on a pressure calibrated scale to indicate the applied pressure
directly.
As the pressure in the case containing the bourdon tube is usually
atmospheric, the pointer indicates 28
gauge pressure.
Applications of Bourdon pressure gauge :-
They are used to measure medium to very high pressures.
For measuring high pressures e.g. in steam boilers,
compressors.
For measuring pressures in vehicles tube tire.
Advantages of bourdon pressure gauge:-
These Bourdon tube pressure gauges give accurate results.
Bourdon tube cost low.
Bourdon tubes are simple in construction.
They can be modified to give electrical outputs.
They are safe even for high-pressure measurement.
Accuracy is high especially at high pressures.
Disadvantages of bourdon pressure gauge:-
They respond slowly to changes in pressure
They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
Amplification is a must as the displacement of the free end
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 Diaphragm Pressure Transducer
A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure
measurement.
They are commercially available in two types – metallic and non-
metallic.
Metallic diaphragms are known to have good spring
characteristics and non-metallic types have no elastic
characteristics.
Thus, non-metallic types are used rarely, and are usually opposed
by a calibrated coil spring or any other elastic type gauge.
The non-metallic types are also called slack diaphragm.

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 Diaphragm Pressure Transducer

• When a force acts against a thin stretched

diaphragm, it causes a deflection of the
diaphragm with its center deflecting the
most.
• The deflection of the pressure element is
transferred via a link or mechanism.
• This mechanism amplifies the small
deflection of the element and transfers it to
the pointer.
• Since the elastic limit has to be maintained,
the deflection of the diaphragm must be
kept in a restricted manner.

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 Diaphragm Pressure Transducer

Advantages
• Excellent load performance
• Linearity
• Suitable for measuring absolute and differential
pressure
• Small in size
• Can be used to measure viscous and slurry materials

Disadvantages
• Seismic, impact-resistant is not good
• Difficulty in maintenance
• lower measurement pressure

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 Rotameter
 Rotameters are the most widely used type of variable-area (VA) flowmeter.
 It is a variable area meter which works on the principle of upthrust force
exerted by fluid and force of gravity.
 It is a device used to measure fluid flow, in which a float rises in a tapered
vertical tube to a height dependent on the rate of flow through the tube.
 The height of the float is directly proportional to the flowrate. With liquids,
the float is raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the
velocity head of the fluid.

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 Working of Rotameter
 When there is no flow through a rotameter, the float rests on the bottom of
the dosing tube, where the maximum diameter of the float is approximately
the same as the inner diameter of the tube.
 When the fluid enters the dosing tube, the floating effect of the fluid
lightens the float. However, the float has a greater density than the fluid,
and the flotation effect is not sufficient to raise it.
 The pressure falling through the float increases and increases the float.
 This increases the area between the float and the tube until the upward
hydraulic forces acting on it are balanced by their weight, less the floating
force.
 The float moves up and down the tube in proportion to the flow rate of fluid
and the annular area between the float and the tube.

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 Construction of the float
The construction of the float decides heavily, the performance of the
rotameter. In general, a float should be designed such that:

(a) it must be held vertical

(b) it should create uniform turbulence so as to make it insensitive to

viscosity

(c) it should make the rotameter least sensitive to the variation of the
fluid density

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Advantages:
 A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the
inherent properties of the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow
rate.
 A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass
manufactured out of cheap materials, allowing for its widespread use.
 Since the area of the flow passage increases as the float moves up
the tube, the scale is approximately linear.
 Clear glass is used which is highly resistant to thermal shock and
chemical action.
Disadvantages:
 Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically
oriented and right way up, with the fluid flowing upward.
 Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the
float, graduations on a given rotameter will only be accurate for a
given substance at a given temperature.
 Due to the direct flow indication the resolution is relatively poor
compared to other measurement principles.

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A rotameter calibrated for metering has a scale ranging from 0.014
m3/min to 0.14 m3/min. It is intended to use this meter for metering a
gas of density 1.3 kg/m3 with in a flow range of 0.028 m3/min to 0.28
m3/min. What should be the density of the new float if the original one
has a density of 1900 kg/m3? Both the floats can be assumed to have
the same volume and shape.

From the equation, for the same float area and float volume and the
pipe geometry,
Q = k (ρf - ρ)0.5
where k is a proportionality constant
Qnew / Qold = ( (ρfnew-ρ) / (ρfold - ρ) )0.5
i.e. 0.028 / 0 .014 = ( (ρfnew- 1.3) / (1900 - 1.3) )0.5
2 = (ρfnew - 1.3)0.5 / 43.574
(ρfnew - 1.3)0.5 = 87.15
(ρfnew - 1.3) = 7595.1 37
ρfnew = 7596 kg/m3
 Orifice Meter
 An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow meter used to measure the rate
of flow of Liquid or Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential Pressure
Measurement principle. It is mainly used for robust applications as it is
known for its durability and is very economical.

 As the name implies, it consists of an Orifice Plate which is the basic

element of the instrument. When this Orifice Plate is placed in a line, a
differential pressure is developed across the Orifice Plate. This pressure
drop is linear and is in direct proportion to the flow-rate of the liquid or gas.

 In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to

empirically calibrate them. That is, pass a known volume through the meter
and note the reading in order to provide a standard for measuring other
quantities.

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Orifice Meter

39
 Working of Orifice Meter
 As the fluid approaches the orifice the pressure increases slightly and then
drops suddenly as the orifice is passed. It continues to drop until the “vena-
contracta” is reached and then gradually increases until at approximately 5 to
8 diameters downstream a maximum pressure point is reached that will be
lower than the pressure upstream of the orifice.
 The decrease in pressure as the fluid passes through the orifice is a result
of the increased velocity of the gas passing through the reduced area of the
orifice.
 When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice the pressure
increases and tends to return to its original level. All of the pressure loss is
not recovered because of friction and turbulence losses in the stream.
 The pressure drop across the orifice ( ΔP in Fig.) increases when the rate of
flow increases. When there is no flow there is no differential.
 The differential pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity, it
therefore follows that if all other factors remain constant, then the
differential is proportional to the square of the rate of flow.

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 Shape & Size of Orifice meter
Orifice meters are built in different forms depending upon the application
specific requirement, The shape, size and location of holes on the Orifice Plate
describes the Orifice Meter Specifications as per the following :
Types of Orifice plates

1. Concentric Orifice Plate

2. Eccentric Orifice Plate
3. Segment Orifice Plate
4. Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate

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Applications of Orifice meter
 Natural Gas
 Water Treatment Plants
 Oil Filtration Plants
 Petrochemicals and Refineries

Advantages of Orifice meter

 The Orifice meter is very cheap as compared to other types of flow meters.
 Less space is required to Install and hence ideal for space constrained
applications
 Operational response can be designed with perfection.

Limitations of Orifice meter

 Easily gets clogged due to impurities in gas or in unclear liquids
 The minimum pressure that can be achieved for reading the flow is
sometimes difficult to achieve due to limitations in the vena-contracta length
for an Orifice Plate.
 Orifice Plate can get easily corroded with time thereby entails an error

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 Ultrasonic Level Transducer

 Ultrasonic sensing is one of the best ways to sense proximity and

detect levels with high reliability.
 An ultrasonic transducer is an instrument that measures the distance
to an object using ultrasonic sound waves.
 An ultrasonic transducer sends and receives ultrasonic pulses that
relay back information about an object’s proximity.
 High-frequency sound waves reflect from boundaries to produce
distinct echo patterns.

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Ultrasonic Level Transducer

44
 How Ultrasonic Transducer Work

 Ultrasonic sensors work by sending out a sound wave at a frequency

above the range of human hearing.
 The transducer of the sensor acts as a microphone to receive and
send the ultrasonic sound.
 Our ultrasonic sensors, like many others, use a single transducer to
send a pulse and to receive the echo.
 The sensor determines the distance to a target by measuring time
lapses between the sending and receiving of the ultrasonic pulse.

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 How Ultrasonic Transducer Work

The distance can be calculated with the following formula:

Distance L = 1/2 × T × C

where L is the distance, T is the time between the emission and reception,
and C is the sonic speed. (The value is multiplied by 1/2 because T is the time
for go-and-return distance.)

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 Capacitance Level Measurement
 Capacitive level transducer is an example of indirect measurement
of level
 Capacitance level sensors are used for wide variety of solids,
aqueous and organic liquids, and slurries.
 The technique is frequently referred as RF as radio frequency
signals applied to the capacitance circuit.
 Since capacitance level sensors are electronic devices, phase
modulation and the use of higher frequencies makes the sensor
suitable for applications in which dielectric constants are similar.
 The capacitive sensors are designed to sense material with
dielectric constants as low as 1.1 for coke and fly ash, and as high as
88 for water or other liquids.

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Capacitance Level Measurement

48
 Working of Capacitance Level Measurement

 The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on change of

capacitance. An insulated electrode acts as one plate of capacitor and the
tank wall (or reference electrode in a non-metallic vessel) acts as the
other plate. The capacitance depends on the fluid level. An empty tank has
a lower capacitance while a filled tank has a higher capacitance.
 A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plate separated by a small
thickness of an insulator such as solid, liquid, gas, or vacuum. This
insulator is also called as dielectric.
 Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also distance
between the plates.

 Where:
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)
E = a constant known as the absolute permittivity of free space
K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material
A = effective area of the conductors
d = distance between the conductors
This change in capacitance can be measured using AC bridge.
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