Fluid static

Pressure and its measurement

Pressure is defined as a normal force per unit area existing in the fluid. Pressure (𝑝) has dimensions
𝐹/𝐿2 (𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑓𝑡 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑁/𝑚2 )

Pascal law: it states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid equal in all
directions
let us determine the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest. Consider a wedge-shaped particle exposed on
all sides to a fluid as illustrated in Figure a. Figure b is a Freebody diagram of the particle cross section.
The dimensions ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, and ∆𝑧 are small and tend to zero as the particle shrinks to a point. The only
forces considered to be acting on the particle are due to pressure and gravity. On either of the three
surfaces, the pressure force is 𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴. By applying Newton’s second law in the x- and z-directions,
we get, respectively,

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 ∆𝑧∆𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 ∆𝑠∆𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0

∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 ∆𝑠∆𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝜌𝑔 =0
2
where: 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑧 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑠 are average pressures acting on the three corresponding faces
𝜌 is the density
The third term on the left-hand side of the second equation can be neglected because it is a higher order
term containing ∆𝑥∆𝑧, which is very small in comparison to the other terms. From the geometry of the
wedge, we find that

Variation of pressure of a fluid at rest

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the hydrostatic law which states that the rate
of increase of pressure in vertical downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the liquid
at that point. Consider an element of a fluid at rest, as illustrated in Figure a. The element chosen has a
volume 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 and is sketched in a coordinate system where the positive 𝑧-direction is downward,
coincident with the direction of the gravity force. Figure b is a view of the element looking in the
positive y-direction; the force acting on the right face is 𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 and that on the left face is [𝑝 +
𝜕𝑝
(𝜕𝑥) 𝑑𝑥]𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧, both normal to their respective surfaces. Summing forces in the x-direction, we have
the following for a static fluid:
Thus, Equations show that there is no variation of pressure in any lateral direction. Figure c gives a free-
body diagram for the z-direction. Summing forces, we obtain

Therefore, pressure does vary in a static fluid in the z-direction it increases with depth, as shown by
Equation. Integrating both sides yields

where point 1 is a reference point such as the free surface of a liquid and point 2 is a point of interest.
For incompressible fluids, the density is a constant, and Equation can be easily evaluated to give

where ∆𝑧 is the depth below the liquid surface or the pressure head (ℎ).
Such systems can be analyzed easily by remembering that (1) the pressure change across a fluid column
of height ℎ is ∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ, (2) pressure increases downward in a given fluid and decreases upward (i.e.,
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 > 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 ), and (3) two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at rest are at the same
pressure.
The pressure at the bottom of the tank can be determined by starting at the free surface where the
pressure is 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 , moving downward until we reach point 1 at the bottom, and setting the result equal to
𝑃1 . It gives
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 + 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 + 𝝆𝟑 𝒈𝒉𝟑 = 𝑷𝟏

Measurement of Pressure
1. Absolute pressure
2. Gauge pressure
3. Vacuum pressure
Absolute pressure When a pressure is expressed as a difference between its value and a complete
vacuum.
Gauge pressure When it is expressed as a difference between its value and the local atmospheric
pressure. A negative gage pressure is also referred to as a suction or vacuum pressure
The pressure can be measured by the following devices
Manometer
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or inclined
tubes. Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called manometers. The mercury
barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but there are many other configurations possible,
depending on the particular application. Three common types of manometers include the piezometer
tube, the U-tube manometer, and the inclined-tube manometer.
1. It is important to be able to measure atmospheric pressure because it relates gauge pressure to
absolute pressure. One technique is to use a barometer. This device consists of a tube that is
inverted while submerged and full of liquid.

A free-body diagram of the liquid is shown in Figure b. Summing forces gives

 ∑ 𝐹 = 0 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑧

or, for a barometer,

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧

2. Piezometer tube
The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to the container
in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in Fig. below. Since manometers involve columns of
fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

3. U-tube manometer
Another type of manometer which is widely used consists of a tube formed into the shape of a
U, as is shown in Figure below.
 The fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid. To find the pressure in terms of the various
column heights, we start at one end of the system and work our way around to the other end,
we will start at point A and work around to the open end. The pressure at points A and (1) are
the same, and as we move from point (1) to (2) the pressure will increase by 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏 .
The pressure at point (2) is equal to the pressure at point (3), since the pressures at equal
elevations in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must be the same. Note that we could not simply
“jump across” from point (1) to a point at the same elevation in the right-hand tube since these
would not be points within the same continuous mass of fluid. With the pressure at point (3)
specified, we now move to the open end where the pressure is zero. As we move vertically
upward the pressure decreases by an amount 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 . In equation form these various steps can
be expressed as

𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌2 𝑔 ℎ1 = 0

and, therefore, the pressure can be written in terms of the column heights as
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1
The U-tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure between two
containers or two points in a given system. Consider a manometer connected between
containers A and B as is shown in Figure below. The difference in pressure between A and B
can be found

by again starting at one end of the system and working around to the other end. For example, at A the
pressure is 𝑝𝐴 which is equal to𝑝1 and as we move to point (2) the pressure increases by 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 The
pressure at 𝑝2 is equal to 𝑝3 and as we move upward to point (4) the pressure decreases by 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2
Similarly, as we continue to move upward from point (4) to (5) the pressure decreases by 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3 .
Finally, 𝑝5 = 𝑝𝐵 since they are at equal elevations. Thus,
 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ 1 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3 = 𝑝𝐵

4. Inclined-tube manometer
To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown below is frequently used. One leg
of the manometer is inclined at an angle and the differential reading is measured along the inclined
tube. The difference in pressure 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 can be expressed as
𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔 ℎ1 − 𝜌2 𝑔 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜌3 𝑔 ℎ3 = 𝑝𝐵

Mechanical and electronic pressure measuring devices

Although manometers are widely used, they are not well suited for measuring very high pressures, or
pressures that are changing rapidly with time. In addition, they require the measurement of one or more
column heights, which, although not particularly difficult, can be time consuming. To overcome some
of these problems numerous other types of pressure measuring instruments have been developed.

Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure measurement device is the Bourdon tube, named
after the French engineer and inventor Eugene Bourdon (1808–1884), which consists of a bent, coiled,
or twisted hollow metal tube whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle. When the
tube is open to the atmosphere, the tube is undeflected, and the needle on the dial at this state is
calibrated to read zero (gage pressure). When the fluid inside the tube is pressurized, the tube stretches
and moves the needle in proportion to the applied pressure. Electronics have made their way into every
aspect of life, including pressure measurement devices. Modern pressure sensors, called pressure
transducers, use various techniques to convert the pressure effect to an electrical effect such as a change
in voltage, resistance, or capacitance
Problems sheet 2
1. A closed tank is partially filled with glycerin. If the air pressure in the tank is 6 lb/in.2 and the
depth of glycerin is 10 ft, what is the pressure in lb/ft2 at the bottom of the tank?

2. For an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa (abs) determine the heights of the fluid columns in
barometers containing one of the following liquids: (a) mercury, (b) water, and (c) ethyl
alcohol. Calculate the heights including the effect of vapor pressure, and compare the results
with those obtained neglecting vapor pressure. Do these results support the widespread use of
mercury for barometers? Why?
3. A mercury manometer is connected to a large reservoir of water as shown in Figure below. Determine the ratio,
ℎ𝑤/ℎ𝑚, of the distances ℎ𝑤 and ℎ𝑚 indicated in the figure.
4. The inverted U-tube manometer of Figure below contains oil (SG =0.92) and water as shown.
The pressure differential between pipes A and B, 𝑝𝐴 _ 𝑝𝐵 , is −5 𝑘𝑃𝑎. Determine the differential
reading, h.
5. In Figure below pipe A contains gasoline (SG = 0.7), pipe B contains oil (SG = 0.9), and the
manometer fluid is mercury. Determine the new differential reading if the pressure in pipe A is
decreased 25 kPa, and the pressure in pipe B remains constant. The initial differential reading
is 0.30 m as shown.
6. An inverted U-tube manometer containing oil (SG = 0.8) is located between two reservoirs as
shown in Figure below. The reservoir on the left, which contains carbon tetrachloride, is closed
and pressurized to 8 psi. The reservoir on the right contains water and is open to the atmosphere.
With the given data, determine the depth of water, h, in the right reservoir.

7. Determine the change in the elevation of the mercury in the left leg of the manometer of Figure below as a result
of an increase in pressure of 5 psi in pipe A while the pressure in pipe B remains constant.
8. For the configuration shown in figure below, calculate the weight of the piston if the gage
pressure reading is 70 kPa

Let W = weight of the piston

𝑊
− [(0.86)(9.79)](1) = 70
(𝜋)(1)2
[ 4 ]

𝑊 = 61.6 𝑘𝑁
9. A flowrate measuring device is installed in a horizontal pipe through which water is flowing.
A U-tube manometer is connected to the pipe through pressure taps located 3 in. on either side
of the device. The gage fluid in the manometer has a specific weight of 112 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 . Determine
the differential reading of the manometer corresponding to a pressure drop between the taps of
0.5 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2

10. The U-tube manometer shown in Figure below has two fluids, water and oil (S = 0.80). Find
the height difference between the free water surface and the free oil surface with no applied
pressure difference.

Pressure will be same at the level (x-x)

𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔 (10) = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 (10 − ℎ) + 𝑝𝐴
𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔(10) = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔(10 − ℎ)
𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
(10) = (10 − h)
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
(0.8)(10) = 10 − ℎ

8 = 10 − ℎ
ℎ = 2𝑐𝑚

11. Determine the elevation difference, 𝛥ℎ, between the water levels in the two open tanks shown
in Figure below
12. The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid
manometer as shown in Figure below. Determine the gage pressure of air in the tank if ℎ1 =
0.4 𝑚, ℎ2 = 0.6 𝑚, and ℎ3 = 0.8 𝑚. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, and 13,600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.
 13. The maximum blood pressure in the upper arm of a healthy person is about 120 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔. If a
vertical tube open to the atmosphere is connected to the vein in the arm of the person, determine
how high the blood will rise in the tube. Take the density of the blood to be 1040 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

For a given gage pressure, the relation 𝑃 = 𝑔ℎ can be expressed for mercury and blood as
𝑃 = 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑔 ℎ𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 and 𝑃 =  𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑔 ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 .
Setting these two relations equal to each other we get

𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑔 ℎ𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 =  𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑔 ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦

Solving for blood height and substituting gives

 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
ℎ𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 = ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑

kg
13,600 3
m
ℎ𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 = kg (0.12 m) = 1.57 m
1040 3
m

14. A mercury manometer (𝜌 = 13,600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) is connected to an air duct to measure the
pressure inside. The difference in the manometer levels is 10 mm, and the atmospheric pressure
is 100 kPa. (a) Judging from Figure below, determine if the pressure in the duct is above or
below the atmospheric pressure. (b) Determine the absolute pressure in the duct.
15. Blood pressure is usually measured by wrapping a closed air-filled jacket equipped with a
pressure gage around the upper arm of a person at the level of the heart. Using a mercury
manometer and a stethoscope, the systolic pressure (the maximum pressure when the heart is
pumping) and the diastolic pressure (the minimum pressure when the heart is resting) are
measured in 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔. The systolic and diastolic pressures of a healthy person are about
120 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 and 80 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔, respectively, and are indicated as 120/80. Express both of these
gage pressures in kPa, psi, and meter water column.

16. The pressure in a natural gas pipeline is measured by the manometer shown in Figure below
with one of the arms open to the atmosphere where the local atmospheric pressure is 14.2 psia.
Determine the absolute pressure in the pipeline.
17. Consider a U-tube whose arms are open to the atmosphere. Now water is poured into the U-
tube from one arm, and light oil (𝜌 = 790 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) from the other. One arm contains 70 cm-
high water, while the other arm contains both fluids with an oil-to-water height ratio of 6.
Determine the height of each fluid in that arm.
Variable gravity

Up until now we have assumed that the acceleration of gravity is constant: 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
This is not exactly true in any problem involving two different elevations. However, the change in
gravitational acceleration with a change in elevation is quite small. The acceleration of gravity near the
surface of the earth is proportional to the reciprocal of the square of the distance from the centre of
earth. The radius of the earth is about 4000 𝑚𝑖 = 6440 𝑘𝑚, so the acceleration of gravity 1 mi = 1.609
km above the surface is 4000/ 4001 = 0.9995 times the acceleration of gravity at the surface. Few
engineering problems include data precise enough to justify making such corrections. In two types of
problem, however, nonconstant gravity is important:

1. In space travel and rocket problems, where the distances from the earth become significant
compared with 4000 mi (so the changing value of gravity must be taken into account)
2. Acceleration and centrifugal force problems

Since this chapter is about fluid statics, it seems strange to consider acceleration or centrifugal force
problems, in which the fluid is certainly moving. We do so because in these problems the fluid is not
moving relative to its container or relative to other parts of the fluid. Really, all problems in terrestrial
fluid statics involve moving fluids, because the fluids are on the earth, the earth is rotating about its axis
and revolving around the sun, and the sun is moving through space. As long as the individual particles
of fluid are not moving relative to each other, we can treat such moving problems by the methods of
fluid statics. Such motions of fluids are called rigid-body motions.

Pressure in accelerated rigid body motions

we use the small, cubical element of fluid shown in Figure below and consider it to be part of a larger
mass of fluid. If the fluid was being accelerated, then the sum of the forces acting on it, in the direction
of the acceleration, must equal the mass times the acceleration. For the cubical element of fluid being
accelerated in the vertical direction, we rewrite as
 𝑑2 𝑧
(𝑃𝑧=0 )∆𝑥∆𝑦 − (𝑃𝑧=∆𝑧 )∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝜌𝑔∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 = 𝜌∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧
𝑑𝑡 2

Dividing by ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 and taking the limit as ∆𝑧 approaches zero, we find

𝑑𝑃 𝑑2 𝑧
= 𝜌 (𝑔 + 2 )
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡

which for constant-density fluids can be integrated to

𝑑2 𝑧
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝜌 (𝑔 + ) (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
𝑑𝑡 2
[constant density]
For gauge pressure this simplifies further to
𝑑2 𝑧 [constant density, gauge pressure]
𝑃 = −𝜌ℎ (𝑔 + )
𝑑𝑡 2

An open tank contains water 5 𝑚 deep. It is sitting on an elevator. Calculate the gauge pressure at the
bottom of the tank (a) when the elevator is standing still, (b) when the elevator is accelerating upward
at the rate of 5 𝑚/𝑠 2 , and (c) when the elevator is accelerating downward at the rate of 5 𝑚/𝑠 2 .