Appendix 2

Learning Resource Materials

Unit 2: Principles of Hydrostatic Pressure

Target Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to

1. Determine the variation of pressure within the fluid field.

2. Distinguish between gage pressure and absolute pressure.
3. Determine the pressure or pressure differences as indicate by the gage reading of a
manometer.
4. State the value of the specific gravity of commonly used manometer gage liquids oil
gasoline, carbon

Abstraction

A. Unit Pressure
In our study of fluid mechanics, we often encounter pressure. It results from compressive forces
acting on an area. In Fig. 1.2 the infinitesimal force ∆Fn acting on the infinitesimal area ∆A gives
rise to the pressure, defined by

𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞, 𝐅
𝐩=
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚, 𝐀

The units on pressure result from force divided by area, that is, N/m2 , the pascal, Pa. A pressure
of 1 Pa is a very small pressure, so pressure is typically expressed as kilopascals or kPa. Using
English units, pressure is expressed as lb/ft 2 (psf) or lb/in2 (psi). Atmospheric pressure at sea
level is 101.3 kPa,(14.7 lb/in2 ). It should be noted that pressure is sometimes expressed as
millimeters of mercury, as is common with meteorologists, or meters of water; we can use p =
ρgh to convert the units, where ρ is the density of the fluid with height h.
Pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure is called gage pressure; it is what a gage
measures if the gage reads zero before being used to measure the pressure. Absolute pressure is
zero in a volume that is void of molecules, an ideal vacuum. Absolute pressure is related to gage
pressure by the equation

𝐩𝐚𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 = 𝐩𝐠𝐚𝐠𝐞 + 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐦𝐨𝐬𝐩𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞

where patmosphere is the atmospheric pressure at the location where the pressure measurement is
made; this atmospheric pressure varies considerably with elevation. For example, at the top of
Pikes Peak in Colorado, it is about 60 kPa. If neither the atmospheric pressure nor elevation are
given, we will assume standard conditions and use patmosphere = 101.3 kPA. Figure 1.3 presents
a graphic description of the relationship between absolute and gage pressure. Several common
representations of the standard atmosphere (at 40– latitude at sea level) are included in that figure.

We do not define temperature (it requires molecular theory for a definition) but simply state that
we use two scales: the Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit scale. The absolute scale when using
temperature in degrees Celsius is the kelvin (K) scale and the absolute scale when using
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit is the Rankine scale. We use the following conversions:

K = °C + 273
R = °F + 460

B. Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law, developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that the pressure on a fluid
is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container. In The figure below, as liquid flows into
the large container at the bottom, pressure pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the
container. The liquid rises to the same level in all of the tubes, regardless of the shape or angle of
the tube.
The laws of fluid mechanics are observable in many everyday situations. For example, the pressure
exerted by the water at the bottom of a pond will be the same as the pressure exerted by water at
the bottom of a much narrower pipe, provided depth remains constant. If a longer pipe filled with
water is tilted so that it reaches a maximum height of 15 m, its water will exert the same pressure
as the other examples. Fluids can flow up as well as down in devices such as siphons. Hydrostatic
force causes water in the siphon to flow up and over the edge until the bucket is empty or the
suction is broken. A siphon is particularly useful for emptying containers that should not be tipped.

C. Absolute and Gage Pressure

Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure)
Gage Pressure are pressures above and below the atmosphere and can be measured by pressure
gauges or manometers. For small pressure differences, a U-tube manometer is used. It consists of
a U-shaped tube with one end connected to the container and the other open to the atmosphere.
Filled with a liquid, such as water, oil, or mercury, the difference in the liquid surface levels in the
two manometer legs indicates the pressure difference from local atmospheric conditions. For
higher pressure differences, a Bourdon gauge, named after French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is
used. This consists of a hollow metal tube with an oval cross section, bent in the shape of a hook.
One end of the tube is closed, the other open and connected to the measurement region.

Atmospheric Pressure and Vacuum

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth’s surface from the weight of the
air above it. A vacuum is a space that has all matter removed from it. It is impossible to create a
perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum system is, some molecules
are always present in the vacuum are. Even remoter regions of outer space have a small amount of
gas. A vacuum can also be described as a region of space where the pressure is less that the normal
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.9 in) of mercury.

Under Normal conditions at sea level:

patm = 2166 lb/ft 2
= 14.7 psi
= 29.9 inches of mercury (hg)
= 760 mm Hg
= 101.3 kPa

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum).
𝐩𝐚𝐛𝐬 = 𝐩𝐠𝐚𝐠𝐞 + 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐦

Note:
 Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure attainable.
 Absolute pressure can never be negative.
 The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the ambient atmospheric pressure.

Mercury Barometer
A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in atmospheric
pressure. At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.9) up a calibrated
glass tube. Higher elevations yield lower readings because the atmosphere is less dense there, and
the thinner air exerts less pressure on the mercury.

Aneroid Barometer
In an aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated metal drum expands or contracts in response to
changes in air pressure. A series of lever and springs translates the up and down movement of the
drum top into the circular motion of the pointers along the aneroid barometer’s face.

D. Variations in Pressure
Consider any two points (1 and 2) whose difference in elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an
elementary prism having a cross-sectional area a and a length of L. Since this prism is at rest, all
forces acting upon it must be in equilibrium.

The figure forces acting on an elementary prism

Note: Free liquid surfaces refers to the liquid

surface subject to zero gage pressure or with
atmosphere pressure only.

With reference to the above figure:

W= γV
W = γ (aL)

[∑ Fx = 0]

F2 − F1 = Wsinθ
p2 a − p1 a = γ (aL)sinθ
p2 − p1 = γLsinθ but Lsinθ = h
𝐩𝟐 − 𝐩𝟏 = 𝛄𝐡
Therefore, the difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is
equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid to the vertical distance between two points.
Also:
𝐩𝟐 = 𝐩𝟏 + 𝛚𝐡

This means that any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change at point 2.
Therefore; a pressure applied to any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished
to every other point in the liquid.

Let us assume that point 1 in the previous figure lie on the free liquid surface, then the gage
pressure is zero, the above equation becomes
𝐩𝟐 = 𝛚𝐡
This means that the pressure at any point “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the product of
the unit weight of the fluid and h

Consider that point 1 and 2 in the previous figure lie on the same elevation such that h = 0, then
equation becomes
𝐩𝟐 = 𝐩𝟏
This means that the pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid at rest are
equal.

Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids

Consider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different densities and with air at the top under
a gage pressure of pA, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is:

𝐩𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 = ∑ 𝛄𝐡 + 𝐩 = 𝛄𝟏 𝐡𝟏 + 𝛄𝟐 𝐡𝟐 + 𝛄𝟑 𝐡𝟑 + 𝐩𝐀

E. Pressure Head

Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit weight 𝛾 that will
produce an intensity of pressure p
𝐩
𝐡=
𝛄

To Convert Pressure head (height) of liquid A to liquid B

𝐬𝐀 𝛒𝐀 𝛄𝐀
𝐡𝐁 = 𝐡𝐀 𝐨𝐫 𝐡𝐁 = 𝐡𝐀 𝐨𝐫 𝐡𝐁 = 𝐡𝐀
𝐬𝐁 𝛒𝐁 𝛄𝐁

To convert pressure head (height) of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by its specific
gravity.

𝐡𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝐡𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐗 𝐒𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝

F. Manometers

A manometer is a tube, usually bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific gravity.
The surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure. It is used measure pressure.

Types of Manometer

Open Type – has an atmosphere surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage pressures.
Differential Type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only different of
pressure.

Piezometer – the simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube tapped into a wall of a container
or conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. The fluid in the container or conduit rises in this
tube to form a free surface.

Limitations of Piezometer

 Large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes

 Gas pressures cannot be measured because gas cannot form a free surface

Steps in solving Manometer Problems:

1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed, (water is most
advisable)
2. Starting at the end point, number in order the interface of different fluids.
3. Identify points of equal pressure. Taking into account that for a homogeneous fluid at rest,
the pressure along a horizontal plane are equal. Label these points with the same number.
4. Proceed from level to level, adding if going down, and subtracting is goin up the pressure
heads as the elevation decreases or increases respectively with due regard to the specific
gravity of the fluids.

Examples:
1. In a depth of liquid of 1m causes a pressure of 7 kPa, what is the specific gravity of the
liquid?

Solution:
Pressure, 𝐩 = 𝛄𝐡
𝟕 = (𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝐱 𝐒)(𝟏)
𝐒 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒

2. What is the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use specific gravity = 1.03 for salt water.

Solution:
𝐩 = 𝛄𝐡
p = (9.81 X 1.03)(12.5)
𝐩 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟑 𝐤𝐏𝐀

3. Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m3, what is the approximate height of
the mountain if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 654 mm and at the same
instant, another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480 mm?

Solution:

𝛒𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 − 𝛒𝐭𝐨𝐩 = 𝛄𝐡
(𝛄𝐦 𝐡𝐦 )𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 − (𝛄𝐦 𝐡𝐦 )𝐭𝐨𝐩 = 𝛄𝐡𝐚𝐢𝐫
[(9810 x 13.6)(0.654)]
− [(9810 x 13.6)(0.48)]
= 12h
𝐡 = 𝟏, 𝟗𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟑 𝐦

4. A drum 700 mm in diameter and filled with water has a vertical pipe, 20mm in diameter,
attached at the top. How many Newtons of water must be poured into the pipe to exert a force of
6500N on the top of the drum?

Solution:

Force on the top:

𝐅
𝐩=
𝐀
6500
= π
2 2
4 (700 − 20 )
𝐩 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟗𝟎𝟒 𝐌𝐏𝐚 = 𝟏𝟔, 𝟗𝟎𝟒 𝐏𝐚
𝐩 = 𝛄𝐡
16,904 = 9810h
𝐡 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟑 𝐦

𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝛄 𝐱 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
π
= 9810 x [ (0.022 )(1.723)]
4
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟏 𝐍

5. Determine the value of y in the manometer shown in the figure below.

Solution:

pA pB
+ 3(0.8) + 1.5 − y(13.6) =
γ γ
5 pB
+ 3.9 − 13.6y =
9.81 γ
where pB = 0
𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟒 𝐦

Utilization of Learning

Review Problems:

1. If the pressure 23 meters below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, determine its unit weight, mass
density and specific gravity.
2. If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 Pa, what is the pressure 27 meters below this
point?
3. If the pressure in the air space above an oil (s = 0.75) surface in a closed tank is 115 kPa
absolute, what is the gage pressure 2m below the surface?
4. Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 10m below the free surface of oil of specific
gravity 0.75 if the barometric reading is 752 mmHg.
5. A pressure gage 6m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 kPa. Another
gage height 4m reads 103 kPA. Determine the specific weight of the liquid.
6. An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2m of kerosene (specific weight = 8
kN/cu.m). Find the pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.
7. If atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads 188 mmHg
vacuum, fin the absolute pressure within the tank.
𝑘𝑁
8. The weight density of a mud is given by𝛾 = 10 + 0.5ℎ, where 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 and h is in meters.
Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of 5m.
9. In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03 kPa, and the absolute pressure at
the bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity of the olive oil?

10. If air had a constant specific weight of 12.2 N/m3 and were incompressible, what would be
the height of the atmosphere if the atmospheric pressure (sea level) is 102 kPa?
11. Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m3. What is the approximate height
of the mountain if a mercury barometer at the base reads 654 mm and at the same instant,
another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480 mm?

12. Convert 760 mm of mercury to (a) oil of specific gravity 0.82 and (b) water.
13. A barometer reads 760 mmHg and a pressure gage attached to a tank reads 850 cm of oil
(specific gravity 0.80). What is the pressure in the tank in kPa?
14. Piston A has a cross-section of 1,200 sq. cm while that of piston B is 950 sq. cm. with the
latter higher than piston A by 1.75 m. If the intervening passages are filled with oil whose
specific gravity is 0.8, what is the difference in pressure between A and B?
15. In the figure shown, determine the weight W that can be carried by the 1.5 kN force acting
on the piston.

16. The figure shown shows a set up with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder. What
force F is required to balance the weight of the cylinder if the weight of the plunger is
negligible?

17. The hydraulic press shown is filled with oil with specific gravity 0.82. Neglecting the
weight of the two pistons, what force, F on the handle is required to support the 10 N
weight?

18. For the tank shown in the Figure, ℎ1 = 3𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ3 = 4𝑚. Determine the value of ℎ2 .
 19. In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber?

20. Determine the value of y in the manometer shown in the figure?

Supplementary Materials

e-books:

a. AL-SHEMMERI (2012). Engineering Fluid Mechanics, ISBN No. 978-87-403-0114-4

b. MERLE C. POTTER AND DAVID C. WIGGERT (2008). Schaum’s Outline of Fluid
Mechanics
Power point presentations

A. Unit Pressure
B Pascal’s Law
C Absolute and gage pressure
D Variation of Pressure and depth in a fluid
E Pressure head
F Manometers

Print resources

 White, Frank M. 1979. Fluid Mechanics. UNI Ed Inc, Manila Phil.

 Stretcher, Victor, Wytewi E. Benjamin and Redford Keith W. 1909. Fluid Mechanics.
McGraw Hill

 Daughterty, Robert C., Franzini, Josepth B., and Finnimore, E. John. 1989. Fluid Mechanics
with Engineering Application. Mcgraw Hill Co. New York.

 King, Horace W., Wisler, Chester O., And Woodburn, James C. 1948. Hydraulics 5th
Edition, John Wiley and Son’s Inc. New York.

Video Presentation

A. Introduction to Hydrostatic Pressure –

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iY64C0uU4Qw&feature=share

B. Hydrostatic Pressure (Fluid Mechanics) -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0ujLqKPWew&feature=share