ENGGPHYS: FN-MODULE-2 P.

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FLUID STATICS

PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS

PRESSURE or UNIT PRESSURE, p

Pressure is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area on a body or surface, with
the force acting at right angles to the surface uniformly in all directions.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭
𝒑=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂, 𝑨
Units:
SI: N/m2 or Pa (pascal)
English: lb/in2 or psi (pounds per square inch)
Note:
The pressure Pa (pascal) is too small for pressures encountered in actual
practice. Therefore, its multiples kilopascal (1 kPa = 1 x 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 1 x
106 Pa) are commonly used.

PASCAL’S LAW
Pascal’s Law, introduced by French Mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that:
“Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous mass of
the same static fluid will be at the same pressure.”

For example, the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a pond will be the same
pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a much narrower pipe, provided that depth
remains the same.

ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURES

• GAGE PRESSURE (Relative Pressure), pgage

o Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be
measured by pressure gauges and manometers.

• ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE & VACUUM, patm

o Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point on the earth’s surface from
the weight of the air above it.
o A vacuum is a space that has all matter removed from it. It is impossible to
create a perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum
system is, some molecules are always present in the vacuum area.

Under normal conditions at sea level:

patm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
= 760 mm Hg (millimeter of Mercury)
= 29.9 in Hg (inches of Mercury)

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• ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, pabs

o Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum).
𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 + 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎
Note:
▪ Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure
attainable.
▪ Absolute pressure can never be negative.
▪ The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the ambient atmospheric
pressure.
▪ Unless otherwise specified in the problem, the term pressure signifies gage
pressure.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH IN A FLUID

1
The difference in pressure between any two points in a
homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the product of the unit weight
h of the fluid and the vertical distance between the points.

2
𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 = 𝜸𝒉

The pressure at any point below the free surface of a liquid

equals the product of the unit weight of the liquid and the depth of
h the point.
𝒑 = 𝜸𝒉

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The pressure of two points on the same depth or

h
p1 p2 elevation will be equal. Thus,
𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐

Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with vertical
distance and is independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same at all
points on a given horizontal plane in the fluid. The pressure increases with depth in the
fluid.

PRESSURE BELOW LAYERS OF DIFFERENT LIQUIDS

Air pressure, pA

Consider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different

densities and with air at the top under a gage pressure of pA (closed
tank with air space), the gage pressure at the bottom of the tank is:
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝𝐴

𝒑𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝜸𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + 𝜸𝟐 𝒉𝟐 + 𝜸𝟑 𝒉𝟑 + 𝒑𝑨

pbottom

If we have a free surface at the top, the gage pressure then at

the bottom of the tank is:

𝒑𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝜸𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + 𝜸𝟐 𝒉𝟐 + 𝜸𝟑 𝒉𝟑 + ⋯

pbottom

PRESSURE HEAD
Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit weight ϒ
that will produce an intensity of pressure p.
𝒑
𝒉=
𝜸

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To convert pressure head of liquid A to liquid B:

𝑺𝑮 𝝆 𝜸
𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 𝑺𝑮𝑨 or 𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 𝝆𝑨 or 𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 𝜸𝑨
𝑩 𝑩 𝑩

To convert pressure head of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by its
specific gravity:
𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒙 𝑺𝑮𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

Table 1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CERTAIN FLUIDS

MANOMETER
A manometer is a tube, usually bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known
specific gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure. It is used
to measure pressure.

Types of Manometer
Open Type – has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is
capable of measuring gage pressures.

Differential Type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring

only differences in pressure.

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Piezometer – The simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube tapped

into a wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring
pressure. The fluid in the container or conduit rises in this tube to form
a free surface.

STEPS IN SOLVING MANOMETER PROBLEMS:

1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed (water is
most advisable).
2. Starting from an end point, number in order, the interface of different fluids.
3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a homogenous fluid at
rest, the pressure along the same horizontal plane are equal). Label these points with
the same number.
4. Proceed from level to level: adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up)
pressure heads as the elevation decreases or increases respectively with due regard
for the specific gravity of the fluids.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. If a depth of liquid of 1 m causes a pressure of 7 kPa, what is the specific gravity of the
liquid?

Given: p = 7 kPa
h=1m
Req’d: SG = ?

Sol’n:

𝑝 = 𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 ℎ
𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
also: 𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 =
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

therefore,
𝑝 = (𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )(ℎ)

substitute the values, we have

𝑘𝑁
7 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = (𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 9.81 𝑚3 ) (1 𝑚)
𝑘𝑁
7 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 9.81 𝑚2
𝑺𝑮𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒

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2. What is the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use SG = 1.03 for salt water.

Given: h = 12.5 m
SGsaltwater = 1.03
Req’d: p = ?

Sol’n:
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
𝑝 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (ℎ)
𝑝 = (𝑆𝐺𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )(ℎ)
𝑘𝑁
𝑝 = (1.03 𝑥 9.81 𝑚3 ) (12.5 𝑚)
𝒑 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟑𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

3. If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa, what is the pressure 27 meters below
this point?

Given: p1 = 60 kPa
h = 27 m
Req’d: p2 = ?

Sol’n:
The difference in pressure between any two points in a liquid is
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ

𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ
𝑝2 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝1

Note: 𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Substitute the values:

𝑘𝑁
𝑝2 = (1.03) (9.81 𝑚3 ) (27 𝑚) + 60 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐. 𝟖𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂

4. If the pressure in the air space above an oil (SG = 0.75) surface in a closed tank is 115
kPa absolute, what is the gage pressure 2 m below the surface?

Given: pA (air pressure) = 115 kPa absolute

SGoil = 0.75
h = 2m
Req’d: p = pgage

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Sol’n:
𝑝 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾ℎ
air pressure

we have to get the gage air pressure:

OIL 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 (note: patm = 101.325 kPa)
SG = 0.75 2m
115 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝒂𝒊𝒓) = 𝒑𝑨 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝑝 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾ℎ
𝑘𝑁
𝑝 = 13.675 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 0.75 (9.81 𝑚3 ) (2𝑚)
𝒑 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟑𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂

5. A tank contains 0.8m deep of water and 0.6m of oil having specific gravity of 0.82.
What is the pressure at the bottom of the tank?

Given: hwater = 0.8 m

hoil = 0.6 m
SGoil = 0.82
SGwater = 1
Req’d: pbottom = ?

Sol’n:
Starting from oil going downwards (towards bottom of tank):

𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

OIL 0.6m
SG = 0.82
also, 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 = (𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙 )(𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ) *from SG formula
WATER
SG = 1 0.8m 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = (0.82) (9.81 𝑚3 ) (0.6 𝑚) + (9.81 𝑚3 ) (0.8 𝑚)
pbottom
𝒌𝑵
𝒑𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝟐

6. A pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 kPa.
Another gage height 4 m above the bottom of the tank reads 103 kPa. Determine the
specific weight and specific gravity of the liquid?

Given:

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 ENGGPHYS: FN-MODULE-2 P.2 8

1
90 kPA
h
103 kPA
2 6m
4m

Req’d: γliquid = ?

Sol’n:
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ
103 𝑘𝑃𝑎 − 90 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = (𝛾)(6𝑚 − 4𝑚)
13 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 𝛾(2𝑚)
𝜸 = 𝟔. 𝟓 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑

𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
6.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
𝑺𝑮𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟑

7. On the figure shown, the atmospheric pressure is 101.33 kPa and the pressure at the
bottom of the tank is 242 kPa absolute, what is the specific gravity of fluid X?

SAE 30 Oil 1m Req’d: SGX = ?

Water 2m

Fluid X 3m

Mercury 0.5m

Sol’n:

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 ENGGPHYS: FN-MODULE-2 P.2 9

we need to solve for the gage pressure at bottom: (since the given
value is an absolute pressure)
1 SAE 30 Oil 1m 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
*if no given value, then use 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2 Water 2m 242 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 101.03 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 @ 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
3 Fluid X 3m
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝛾1 ℎ1 + 𝛾2 ℎ2 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 + 𝛾4 ℎ4
4 Mercury 0.5m 𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝛾𝑥 ℎ𝑥 + 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ𝐻𝑔
pbottom
also, 𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )

substitute:
𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑆𝐺𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑆𝐺𝑥 (𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )ℎ𝑥 + 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 (𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )ℎ𝐻𝑔
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
140.97 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.89 (9.81 3 ) (1𝑚) + 1 (9.81 3 ) (2𝑚) + (𝑆𝐺𝑥 ) (9.81 3 ) (3𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝑁
+ 13.6 (9.81 3 ) (0.5𝑚)
𝑚
𝑺𝑮𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔

*note: all specific gravity used is based from the table 1 (specific gravity of certain fluids).

8. In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber?

air 2m
Note: (Recall steps in solving manometers)
*label interface of liquids starting from the
exposed surface from left to right
OIL 4m *points of equal pressure (pressure at the same
SG = 0.80 elevation) are labeled the same point
2 2
*pressure at the exposed surface is equal to zero
5m *adding if going down; subtracting if going up a
3m level
WATER

SG = 0.80

Summing up pressure head from point 1 to 3 in meters of water:

𝑝1 𝑝𝐴
𝛾
+ ℎ1 (1 𝑡𝑜 2) − ℎ2 (2 𝑡𝑜 3) − 𝛾
(𝑎𝑖𝑟 )=0

To convert pressure head of any liquid to water:

𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒙 𝑺𝑮𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

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 ENGGPHYS: FN-MODULE-2 P.2 10

𝑝1 𝑝𝐴
+ 𝑆𝐺𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
𝛾 𝛾
0 𝑝𝐴
air
3
2m
𝑘𝑁 + 1(2𝑚) − 0.8(4 𝑚) = 𝑘𝑁
9.81 3 (9.81 3 )
𝑚 𝑚
𝑝𝐴
1(2𝑚) − 0.8(4 𝑚) = 𝑘𝑁
1 4m
(9.81 3 )
OIL 𝑚
SG = 0.80
2m
𝒑𝑨 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
2 2
5m

3m
WATER

SG = 0.80

9. In the figure, the right leg of the manometer is open to the atmosphere. Find the gage
pressure, in Pa, in the air gap in the tank.

Req’d: pA = ?
Air 8 cm

8 cm

12 cm

Oil
SG = 0.8
9 cm

11 cm

Mercury, 13.6

Sol’n:
Summarizing pressure heads from 1 to 3:
𝑝𝐴 𝑝3
𝛾
+ ℎ1 𝑡𝑜 2 − ℎ2 𝑡𝑜 3 = 𝛾

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𝑝𝐴
𝛾
+ 𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 0

*p3 is zero pressure because it is exposed to air

Air 8 cm
1 𝑝𝐴
+ 0.8(0.08 + 0.12 + 0.09 𝑚)
𝑁
8 cm (9810 )
3 𝑚3
− 13.6(0.09 + 0.12𝑚) = 0
12 cm 𝑵
𝒑𝑨 = 𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟒𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟒𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝑷𝒂
Oil
SG = 0.8
9 cm
2 2

11 cm

Mercury, 13.6

Eden