CHE222

FLUID MECHANICS
(2020-2021 Spring Semester)
2nd and 3rd Week
• Fluid statics
• Pressure, force balance, hydrostatic
• Decanters, centrifuges, manometers.
• Buoyancy, force applications.
FLUID STATICS

Force, Units, and Dimensions

For a static fluid, an important property is the pressure in the fluid. Pressure can
be thought of as the surface force exerted by a fluid against the walls of its
container. Also, pressure exists at any point in a volume of fluid.

In order to understand pressure, which is defined as force exerted per unit area,
Newton’s law of gravitation must be discussed. Newton’s law of gravitation is
used to calculate the force exerted by a mass under the influence of gravity and
is given by
where, in SI units, F is the force exerted in newtons n (kg · m/s2), m the mass
in kg, and g the standard acceleration of gravity, which is defined as 9.80665
m/s2.

In English units, this equation is given by

where, in English units, F is in lbf, m is in lbm, g is 32.1740 ft/s2, and gc (a

gravitational conversion factor) is 32.147 lbm · ft/lbf
 Example 1: Units and Dimensions of Force
Calculate the force exerted by an object weighing 3 lbm in terms of the
following:
a. lb force (English units)
b. Dynes (cgs units)
c. Newtons (SI units)

Solution: For part (a)

 Example 1: Units and Dimensions of Force
Solution: For part (b)
 Example 1: Units and Dimensions of Force
Solution: For part (c)
Pressure

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The
counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress. Since pressure is
defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square
meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa). That is,

1Pa = 1 N/m2
Pressure

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called
the gage pressure. Pgage can be positive or negative, but pressures below atmospheric
pressure are sometimes called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that
indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related to each other by
 Pressure at a point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression of being a vector.
However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions (Fig. 1). That is, it has
magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity

Fig. 1 Pressure is a scalar quantity, not a vector; the pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all directions.
 Pressure at a point
The mean pressures at the three surfaces are P1, P2,
and P3, and the force acting on a surface is the
product of mean pressure and the surface area. From
Newton’s second law, a force balance in the x- and z-
directions gives

Fig. 2. Forces acting on a wedge-shaped fluid

element in equilibrium.
Pressure at a point

Fig. 3. Under hydrostatic conditions, the pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same fluid.
Pressure in a Fluid

In Fig.4, a stationary column of fluid of height h2 (m)

and constant cross-sectional area A (m2), where A = A0
= A1 = A2, is shown. Note that
h2 = h1 + h3.

The top plane of the fluid has a cross-sectional area of

A0 and the pressure immediately above the fluid at the
plane is P0 (N/m2), which could be the pressure of the
atmosphere directly above the fluid. The fluid at any
depth, say h1, must support all the fluid above it. It can
be shown that the forces at any given horizontal point
in a stationary or static fluid must be the same in all
directions.
Fig.4. Pressure in a static fluid
First, it is necessary to calculate the mass of the fluid
in the container. To calculate the mass of the fluid,
its density ρ and volume V that it occupies must be
known. Therefore, the mass of fluid occupying
volume V can be calculated by

For the fluid in Figure 4 of height h2, the volume that

it occupies is h2A. Therefore, the total mass of fluid
that consists of height h2 m and density ρ kg/m3 can
be calculated by
Fig.4. Pressure in a static fluid
Since the pressure P is defined as force per unit area, it can be calculated using

This is the pressure exerted on cross-sectional area A2 due to the mass of the fluid
above it. Here, the unit of pressure known as the Pascal (Pa) is defined as 1 Pa = 1
N/m2. This expression can be generalized for the pressure of the fluid at any depth h
in the fluid, known as the hydrostatic pressure:
• However, to calculate the total pressure on the fluid, it is necessary to take
into account the atmospheric pressure or sometimes a greater external
pressure acting on the fluid. By taking into account the atmospheric pressure
at the top of the fluid, P0, the total pressure P2 can be calculated by
Frequently, it is necessary to know the difference in pressure between two depths
(vertical points) in a fluid. For example, the pressure difference between points 2
and 1 is
 Example 2: Pressure in a Storage Tank

A large storage tank contains oil having a density of 917 kg/m3 (0.917
g/cm3). The tank is 3.66 m (12.0 ft) tall and is vented (open) to the
atmosphere with a pressure of 1 atm (abs) at the top. The tank is filled with
oil to a depth of 3.05 m (10 ft) and also contains 0.61 mm (2.0 ft) of water in
the bottom of the tank. Calculate the absolute pressure in Pa and psia 3.05
m from the top of the tank (the oil/water interface) and at the bottom. Also
calculate the gage pressure at the bottom of the tank.
 Example 2: Pressure in a Storage Tank

First, a sketch is made of the tank, as

shown in Fig. 5. The pressure P0 = 1 atm
or 14.696 psia (from Appendix A.1). Also,
the pressure P0 can be expressed in SI
units, using conversion factors:

P0 = 1.01325 × 105 Pa
Fig. 5. Tank System
To calculate P2 at the bottom of the tank, ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 = 1.00 g/cm3
and

The gage pressure at the bottom is equal to the absolute pressure P2 minus P0:
Pgage = 19.55 psia – 14.696 psia = 4.85 psig
Head of a Fluid

Pressures are given in many different sets of units,

such as psia, dyn/cm2, and newtons/m2, and are
given in Appendix A.1. However, a common
method of expressing pressures is in terms of
“head” in units of m or ft of a particular fluid. This
height or head in meters or feet of the given fluid
will exert the same pressure as the pressures it
represents. Using Eq. which relates pressure P and
height h of a fluid, the height or “head” of the
given fluid can be expressed as
 Example 3: Conversion of Pressure to Head of a Fluid

A fluid is observed to have a pressure of 1 standard atm or 101.325 kN/m2

a. Convert this pressure to “head” of fluid in m water at 4°C.
b. Convert this pressure to “head” of fluid in mmHg at 0°C.

Solution: For part (a), the density of water at 4°C in Appendix A.2 is 1.000
g/cm3. From Appendix A.1, a density of 1.000 g/cm3 equals 1000 kg/m3.
Example 3: Conversion of Pressure to Head of a Fluid

For part (b), the density of Hg in Appendix A.1 is 13.5955 g/cm3. Although
the same procedure as part (a), can be used, there are alternative solutions.
For example, for equal pressures P from different fluids,
Example 4: Gravity Driven Flow from an IV Bottle
Intravenous infusions usually are driven by gravity
by hanging the fluid bottle at sufficient height to
counteract the blood pressure in the vein and to
force the fluid into the body (Fig. 6). The higher the
bottle is raised, the higher the flow rate of the fluid
will be. (a) If it is observed that the fluid and the
blood pressures balance each other when the
bottle is 1.2 m above the arm level, determine the
gage pressure of the blood. (b) If the gage pressure
of the fluid at the arm level needs to be 20 kPa for
sufficient flow rate, determine how high the bottle
must be placed. Take the density of the fluid to be
1020 kg/m3.
Fig. 6
 Example 4: Gravity Driven Flow from an IV Bottle
SOLUTION (a) It is given that an IV fluid and the blood
pressures balance each other when the bottle is at a
certain height. The gage pressure of the blood and
elevation of the bottle required to maintain flow at the
desired rate are to be determined.

Fig. 6
 Example 4: Gravity Driven Flow from an IV Bottle
(b) To provide a gage pressure of 20 kPa at the arm level,
the height of the surface of the IV fluid in the bottle from
the arm level is again determined from

Fig. 6
Devices to Measure Pressure and Pressure Differences

In chemical and other industrial processing plants, it is often important to

measure and control the pressure in a vessel or process. The pressure often
impacts the liquid level in a vessel that may need to be controlled. Also, since
many fluids are flowing in a pipe or conduit, it is necessary to measure the rate
at which the fluid is flowing. Many of these flow meters depend upon devices
for measuring the pressure or a pressure difference (sometimes called a
pressure “differential”). Some common devices are considered in the following
paragraphs.
 1. The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a
device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.

Fig 7. The basic barometer

Example 5: Measuring Atmospheric Pressure
with a Barometer
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric
reading is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.805 m/s2.
Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which its density is
13,570 kg/m3
SOLUTION The barometric reading at a location in height of mercury column
is given. The atmospheric pressure is to be determined
 2. Simple U-tube manometer.
An example of a U-tube manometer is shown in Fig 8. The
pressure Pa N/m2 is exerted on one arm of the U tube and
the pressure Pb on the other arm. Both pressures Pa and Pb
could be pressure taps from a fluid meter, or perhaps Pa
could be a pressure tap and pb the atmospheric pressure (or
vice versa). The top of the manometer is filled with liquid B,
having a density of ρB kg/m3, and the bottom with a fluid of
higher density A, having a density of ρA kg/m3. Liquid A is
immiscible with liquid B. To derive the relationship between
Pa and Pb, we will use the fact that pa is the pressure at
point 1 and Pb at point 5. The pressure at point 2 is

Fig 8. U Tube manometer

 2. Simple U-tube manometer.

where R is the reading of the manometer in m. Since points 2

and 3 are at the same horizontal plane, the pressure at point 3
must be equal to that at point 2 by the principles of
hydrostatics
 2. Simple U-tube manometer.

The reader should note that since Pa and Pb are

measured in the same horizontal plane, the distance Z
does not affect the final result, nor do tube dimensions
such as Radius.
 Example 6: Pressure Difference in a Manometer

A manometer, is being used to measure the differential head (“head loss”) or

pressure drop across a flow meter. The heavier fluid is mercury, with a
density of 13.6 g/cm3, and the top fluid is water, with a density of 1.00
g/cm3. The reading on the manometer is R = 32.7 cm. Calculate the pressure
difference in N/m2 using SI units.
 Example 6: Pressure Difference in a Manometer

Solution: Converting R to m,

Also converting ρA and ρB to kg/m3 and substituting into Eq

 3. Two-fluid U tube.

In Fig. 9, a two-fluid U tube is shown, which is a

sensitive device for measuring very small heads or
pressure differences. Let A m2 be the cross-
sectional area of each of the large reservoirs and a
m2 be the cross-sectional area of each of the tubes
forming the U. Proceeding and making a pressure
balance for the U tube yields the following
expression for the pressure drop:

Fig. 9
 3. Two-fluid U tube.

where R0 is the reading when Pa = Pb, R is the actual reading, ρA is the density
of the heavier fluid, and ρB is the density of the lighter fluid. Often, a/A is made
sufficiently small as to be negligible and R0 is adjusted to zero. Using these
approximations, the pressure drop can be found to be

If ρA and ρB are close to each other, the reading R is magnified.

 Example 7: Pressure Measurement in a Vessel

The U-tube manometer in Fig. 10 is used to measure the pressure pA in a

vessel containing a liquid with a density ρA. Derive the equation relating the
pressure pA and the reading on the manometer as shown.
Solution: At point 2, the pressure is

Fig. 10
 Example 7: Pressure Measurement in a Vessel

Equating P1 = P2 by the principles of

hydrostatics and rearranging
 Example 8: Measuring Pressure with a Manometer
A manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas in a tank. The
fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column
height is 55 cm, as shown in Fig. 11. If the local atmospheric pressure
is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
SOLUTION The reading of a manometer attached to a tank and the
atmospheric pressure are given. The absolute pressure in the tank is to
be determined.

Fig. 11
 Example 9: Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid
Manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the
pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as
shown in Fig. 12. The tank is located on a mountain at
an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure
is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1
= 0.1 m, h2 = 0.2 m, and h3 = 0.35 m. Take the densities
of water, oil, and mercury to be 1000 kg/m3, 850
kg/m3, and 13,600 kg/m3, respectively.

Fig. 12
 Example 9: Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid
Manometer
SOLUTION The pressure in a pressurized water tank is
measured by a multifluid manometer. The air pressure in
the tank is to be determined.

Fig. 12
 4. Bourdon pressure gage.

Although manometers (including digital manometers) are commonly used to

measure pressure differentials, another pressure-measuring device that is
sometimes used is the mechanical Bourdon-tube pressure gage. A coiled hollow
tube in the gage tends to straighten out when subjected to internal pressure,
and the degree of straightening depends on the pressure difference between
the inside and outside pressures. The tube is connected to a pointer on a
calibrated dial
 5. Gravity separator for two immiscible liquids.

Although gravity separators do not explicitly measure pressure, the device is

used to separate liquids based on the principles of hydrostatics. In Fig 10, a
continuous gravity separator (decanter) is shown for the separation of two
immiscible liquids, A (heavy liquid) and B (light liquid). The feed mixture of the
two liquids enters at one end of the separator vessel, and the liquids flow slowly
to the other end and separate into two distinct layers
 5. Gravity separator for two immiscible liquids.
In Fig. 13, the depth of the layer of heavy liquid A is hA1 m and that of B is hB. The total
depth hT = hA1 + hB and is fixed by position of the overflow line for B. The heavy liquid A
discharges through an overflow leg hA2 m above the vessel bottom. Since the vessel and the
overflow lines are both vented to the atmosphere, a hydrostatic balance gives

Fig. 13 Gravity Decanter

Buoyancy

It is a common experience that an object feels lighter and weighs less in a

liquid than it does in air. This can be demonstrated easily by weighing a heavy
object in water by a waterproof spring scale. Also, objects made of wood or
other light materials float on water. These and other observations suggest that
a fluid exerts an upward force on a body immersed in it. This force that tends
to lift the body is called the buoyant force and is denoted by FB.
 Buoyancy
The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.
Consider, for example, a flat plate of thickness h submerged in a liquid of
density parallel to the free surface, as shown in Fig. 14. The area of the top
(and also bottom) surface of the plate is A, and its distance to the free surface
is s.

Fig. 14
 Buoyancy
The buoyant forces acting on these two
bodies are the same since the pressure
distributions, which depend only on
elevation, are the same at the boundaries of
both. The imaginary fluid body is in static
equilibrium, and thus the net force and net
moment acting on it are zero. Therefore, the
upward buoyant force must be equal to the
weight of the imaginary fluid body whose
volume is equal to the volume of the solid
body. Further, the weight and the buoyant
force must have the same line of action to
have a zero moment. This is known as
Archimedes’ principle
 Example 10: Weight Loss of an Object in Seawater
A crane is used to lower weights into the sea (density = 1025 kg/m3)
for an underwater construction project (Fig. 15). Determine the
tension in the rope of the crane due to a rectangular 0.4-m x 0.4-m x
3-m concrete block (density = 2300 kg/m3) when it is (a) suspended
in the air and (b) completely immersed in water.

SOLUTION: A concrete block is lowered into the sea. The tension in

the rope is to be determined before and after the block is in water.

Fig. 15
 Example 10: Weight Loss of an Object in Seawater

(a) Consider a free-body diagram of the concrete block. The forces acting
on the concrete block in air are its weight and the upward pull action
(tension) by the rope. These two forces must balance each other, and thus
the tension in the rope must be equal to the weight of the block

Fig. 15
 Example 10: Weight Loss of an Object in Seawater

(b) When the block is immersed in water, there is the additional force of
buoyancy acting upward. The force balance in this case gives

Discussion: Note that the weight of the concrete block, and thus the
tension of the rope, decreases by (10.8 - 6.0)/10.8 = 55 percent in water.

Fig. 15