9.

11 Stirling Cycle
 Stirling cycle consists of two reversible isotherms and two reversible constant volume
processses.
 Figure given below shows the processes of the cycle on a p-v and a T-s diagram.

 During the expansion Process 3-4, heat is supplied to maintain a constant temperature
TH.
 During the compression Process 1-2, heat is rejected to maintain a constant temperature
TC.
 There are also heat interactions along the constant-volume Process 2-3 and 4-1.
 The quantities of heat in these two processes are essentially equal but opposite in
direction, and the exchange process takes place by means of a regenerator.
- The function of the regenerator is to act as a temporary reservoir, being able to
absorb heat during Process 4-1 and ideally delivering the same quantity of heat
during Process 2-3.
 The thermal efficiency of the Stirling cycle is given by the same expression as for the
Carnot and Ericsson cycles. That is,
TC
  1
TH
 The Stirling engine offers the opportunity for high efficiency together with reduced
emissions from combustion products because the combustion takes place externally and
not within the cylinder as for internal combustion engines.
 In the Stirling engine, energy is transferred to the working fluid from products of
combustion, which are kept separate.
It is an external combustion engine.

1
 Figure given below shows a system that can execute the different processes of the
Stirling cycle.

2
Study Question 11:
Air with 1 kg is a working fluid in a closed Stirling cycle which operates between two
thermal reservoirs at TH=1100K and TC=290K. The lowest pressure in the cycle is 0.35
MPa, and the highest pressure is 4 MPa. Assuming variable specific heats determine
(a) net work in the cycle, in kJ,
(b) net heat transfer in the cycle, in kJ,
(c) heat input to the cycle, and
(d) thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Answer: (a) 256.16 kJ, (b) 256.16 kJ, (c) 347.87 kJ, (d) 73.6%

3
9.12 Ericsson Cycle
 The Ericsson cycle differs from the Stirling cycle in that the constant volume processes
are replaced by constant pressure processes.
 The P-v and T-s diagrams of the Ericsson cycle are shown in Figure given below.

 Figure given below shows a system that can execute an Ericson cycle.

 All processes are totally reversible.

 Heat interaction during the constant pressure processes is internal and can be
accomplished by a regenerator.
 For an ideal regenerator Q41=-Q23.
 The heat interactions with the surroundings Qin and Qout during processes 3-4 and 1-2
take place at constant temperature TH and TC, respectively.
 The thermal efficiency of the cycle is therefore the same as that of a Carnot cycle
operating between the temperature limits TH and TC:
max = 1 – TC / TH

4
 CHAPTER 10
REFRIGERATION AND HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

 Refrigeration is the transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a high-

temperature one.
 The transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
 Refrigerators are cyclic devices, and the working fluids used in the refrigeration cycles
are called refrigerants.
 Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-
temperature one is the heat pump.
 Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same devices; they differ in their
objectives only.
 The objective of the present chapter is to describe some common types of refrigeration
and heat pump systems.
 The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle in which the refrigerant is vaporized and condensed alternately, and is compressed
in the vapor phase.
 Another well-known refrigeration cycle is the gas refrigeration cycle in which the
refrigerant remains in the gaseous phase throughout.
 Other refrigeration cycles discussed in this chapter are cascade refrigeration, where
more than one refrigeration cycle is used, and absorption refrigeration, where the
refrigerant is dissolved in a liquid before it is compressed.

10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems

 The purpose of a refrigeration system is to maintain a cold region at a temperature (T)
below the temperature of its surroundings (Ts) (i.e. T<Ts is required).

10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

 Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle that consists of two reversible isothermal and
two isentropic processes.
 It has the maximum thermal efficiency for given temperature limits, and it serves as a
standard against which actual power cycles can be compared.

5
 Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle is obtained by reversing Carnot vapor power cycle
introduced in Thermodynamics I class, and schematic and related T-s diagram of it is
shown in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1 Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle

 Refrigeration cycle operates between a cold region (temperature TC) and a warmer
region (temperature TH).
 Refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a two phase (liquid-vapor) mixture.
o The refrigerant absorbs heat isothermally from a low-temperature source at TC in
 (process 4-1).
the amount of Q in

o A portion of refrigerant changes phase from liquid to vapor due to heat transfer
from cold region (TC) to refrigerant.
o During this process, temperature and pressure of refrigerant remain constant.
 Refrigerant is compressed isentropically from state 1 where it is a mixture of two
phase liquid and vapor, to state 2, where it is purely saturated vapor (temperature
rises to TH).
 Refrigerant rejects heat isothermally to a high-temperature sink at TH in the amount

of Q out (process 2-3).

o It changes phase from saturated vapor at state 2 to saturated liquid at state 3.

6
 o During this process temperature and pressure of refrigerant remain constant.
 Refrigerant expands isentropically to state 4.
o During this process, the temperature decreases from TH to TC and meanwhile its
pressure p also decreases.
 As Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle is composed of internally reversible processes,
areas on T-s diagram can be taken as measures of heat transfers.
 area 1-a-b-4-1: the amount of heat added to refrigerant from cold region per unit

mass of flowing refrigerant, m .
 area 2-a-b-3-2: the amount of heat rejected from refrigerant to the warm region per

unit mass of flowing refrigerant, m .
 area 1-2-3-4-1: net heat transfer from refrigerant to its surroundings.
 Net heat transfer from refrigerant becomes equal to net work done on refrigerant.
Here, net work done is difference between compressor work input and turbine work
output. That is,
  
W net Wc Wt

 
 
m m m
 The coefficient of performance  of any refrigeration cycle is defined as the ratio of
refrigeration effect to the net work input required to achieve that effect.
 For Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle in Figure 10.1 the coefficient of performance is
 
Qin m area1-a-b-4-1 TC  s a -s b 
β max = = =

Wc m - Wt m
  
area1-2-3-4-1  TH -TC  s a -s b 

which reduces to
TC
β max = (10.1)
TH -TC
This equation represents the maximum theoretical coefficient of performance of any
refrigeration cycle operating between regions at TC and TH.

7
Departures from Carnot Cycle
 The reversed Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles.
 Actual vapor refrigeration systems deviate from theoretical Carnot cycle. Hence, actual
coefficients of performance will be lower than the ones to be calculated by Eq. 10.1.
 Actual systems deviate from theoretical Carnot system in three ways and these ways are
as follows:
 Most significant deviation is due to heat transfers between refrigerant and two
regions (see Figure 10.2).

Figure 10.2 Comparison of the condenser and evaporator temperatures with those of the
warm and cold regions.

o In actual systems, temperature of practical sized evaporator, TC', should be several

degrees below temperature of cold region TC in order to achieve a heat transfer
rate sufficient to maintain cold regions temperature at TC.
o Similarly, in actual systems, temperature of condenser, TH', should be several
degrees above temperature of warm region, TH in order to obtain a sufficient heat
transfer rate from the refrigerant at TH' to warm region at TH.
o Maintaining refrigerant temperatures in the heat exchangers (here heat exchangers
are evaporator and condenser) at TC' and TH' rather than TC and TH decreases the
coefficient of performance. Expressing coefficient of performance of actual
system as ';

area1 -a-b-4-1 TC

β= =
area1 -2-3-4-1 T  -T 
H C

8
 o Comparing areas in the equations for max and ' given above, it can be concluded
that ' is smaller than max. That is,
' of actual refrigeration system < max of Carnot refrigeration cycle.
This conclusion about effect of refrigerant temperature on coefficient of
performance is applicable to other refrigeration cycles.
 The second way actual system deviate from Carnot refrigeration cycle is due to
compression process from state 1' to state 2'. In the Carnot cycle, refrigerant is a two
phase liquid vapor mixture and compression process of this mixture called as wet
compression. Wet compression is not wanted because presence of liquid droplets in a
flowing liquid-vapor mixture has a potential to damage the compressor. Hence, in
actual systems, the compressor is subjected to vapor only. Compression process of
pure vapor is known as dry compression.
 The third way actual system deviate from Carnot refrigeration cycle is the expansion
process from saturated liquid state 3' to the low quality, two phase liquid-vapor
mixture state 4' which is impractical. This expansion in turbine typically produces
relatively small amount of work output compared to work input in the compression
process in compressor. The work developed by an actual turbine would be smaller
because turbines working under these conditions have low isentropic efficiencies.
Hence work output of turbine is sacrificed by replacing it with a simple throttling
valve for expansion process. This causes savings in initial and maintenance costs.
Components of resulting cycle with dry compression is illustrated in Figure 10.3.

9
 Figure 10.3 Components of a pure vapor compression refrigeration system.

 This cycle, known as the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

10
10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems
 Vapor-compression refrigeration systems are the most common refrigeration systems
in use.

10.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers

 Let us reconsider Figure 10.3.
 Assumption made are:
o Work and heat transfers are positive in indicated directions of arrows.
o Kinetic and potential energy changes are neglected.
o Steady state operations are assumed.
 As refrigerant passes through the evaporator, heat transfer from the refrigerated
space results in the vaporization of the refrigerant.
o For a control volume enclosing the refrigerant in evaporator, the mass and energy
rate balances reduce to

Qin

=h1 -h 4 (kW) (10.3)
m
where

m : the mass flow rate of the refrigerant flowing.

Qin : heat transfer rate, referred to as the refrigeration capacity. Another unit for
it is the ton of refrigeration which equal to 211 kJ/min in SI unit system.
 After leaving evaporator at state 1, refrigerant is compressed to higher pressure and
temperature by compressor. Assuming no heat transfer to or from it, for a control
volume enclosing compressor, the mass and energy rate balances reduce to

Wc

=h 2 -h1 (10.4)
m
 
where W c m is the rate of power input per unit of mass of refrigerant flowing.
 After leaving compressor at state 2, refrigerant passes through condenser, and there
is heat transfer from refrigerant to surroundings which is warm region. For a control
volume enclosing refrigerant in condenser, the rate of heat transfer from refrigerant
per unit mass of refrigerant flowing is

11
 
Qout

=h 2 -h 3 (10.5)
m
 After leaving condenser at state 3, in state of saturated liquid, refrigerant enters
expansion valve and expands to evaporator pressure. Expansion process is modeled
as a throttling process which gives
h 4 =h 3 (10.6)
o Pressure decreases.
o Entropy increases.
 In vapor-compression system, net power input is equal to compressor power since
expansion valve involves no power input or output.
The coefficient of performance of vapor-compression refrigeration system is
obtained as
 
Qin m h1 -h 4
  
= (10.7)
Wc m h 2 -h1

 Equations 10.3 through 10.7 can be applied equally for actual performance when
irreversibilities are present in evaporator, compressor and condenser, and for
idealized performance in absence of such effects.
 In order to better comprehend upper limit of an idealized cycle, performance of ideal
vapor-compression system is considered next.

12
10.2.2 Performance of Ideal Vapor-Compression System
 When irreversibilities within evaporator and condenser are ignored, there will be no
frictional pressure drops, refrigerant will flow at constant pressure through evaporator
and condenser. When compression takes place without irreversibilities, and stray heat
transfer to surroundings is ignored, compressor process will be isentropic. Under these
assumptions, 1-2s-3-4-1 vapor-compression refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram of
Figure 10.4 results.

Figure 10.4 T-s diagram of an idealized vapor-compression cycle.

 1-2s-3-4-1 cycle consists of following processes

o Process 1-2s: Isentropic compression of refrigerant, from state 1 to condenser
pressure at state 2s.
o Process 2s-3: Heat transfer from refrigerant as it flows at constant pressure through
the condenser. The refrigerant exits as a liquid at state 3.
o Process 3-4: Throttling process from state 3 to a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture at
state 4.
o Process 4-1: Heat transfer to the refrigerant as it flows at constant pressure through
evaporator to complete cycle.
 All processes shown in Figure 10.4 are internally reversible except for the throttling
process.
 Though, there is this irreversible process only, the cycle is commonly referred to as the
ideal vapor-compression cycle.

13
Study Question 1:
A vapor-refrigeration cycle with
Refrigerant 134a as the working fluid
operates with an evaporator temperature of
6oC and a condenser pressure of 1200 kPa.
Saturated vapor enters the compressor.
Refrigerant enters the condenser at 60oC
and exits as saturated liquid. The cycle has
a refrigeration capacity of 6 tons.
Determine
(a) The quality of the refrigerant at the end
of the throttling process,
(b) the refrigerant mass flow rate, in kg/s,
(c) the compressor isentropic efficiency,
(d) the compressor power, in kW, and
(e) the coefficent of performance.

Answer: (a) 0.2996 (b) 0.156 kg/s (c) 0.672 (d) 5.74 kW (e) 3.67

14
10.2.3 Performance of Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle
 Several features of actual vapor-compression systems are illustrated in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5 T-s diagram of an actual vapor-compression cycle.

 Heat transfers between refrigerant in condenser and evaporator and warm and cold
regions are not accomplished reversibly.
o The temperature of refrigerant in condenser is greater than the warm region
temperature, TH.
o The temperature of refrigerant in evaporator is less than the cold region
temperature, TC.
o Such irreversible heat transfers have significant effect on performance.
 Coefficient of performance decreases
o as the avearge temperature of refrigerant in evaporator decreases.
o as the average temperature of refrigerant in condenser increases.
 Another key feature of actual vapor-compression system performance is identified
below.
o Effect of irreversibilities during compression process from state 1 to state 2
(dashed line shows increase in specific entropy which accompanies adiabatic
irreversible compression).
o Comparing ideal cycle 1-2s-3-4-1 with actual cycle 1-2-3-4-1, it can be concluded
that
- refrigeration capacity would be same for each cycle.

15
 - work input would be greater in case of irreversible compression (actual cycle)
than in ideal cycle.
 Hence coefficient of performance  of cycle 1-2-3-4-1 is less than of cycle 1-2s-3-4-
1.
 The effect of irreversible compression can be accounted for by using isentropic
compressor efficiency as
  

 W c m  h -h
   s = 2s 1
 
 h 2 -h1
 Wc m 
 
 Another deviation from reality is due to frictional effects that result in pressure drops
as refrigerant flows through evaporator, condenser, piping (but they are ignored
herein for simplicity)
 Two additional features of actual vapor-compression system are as follows:
o One is the superheated vapor condition at the evaporator exit, (state 1), which
differs from the saturated vapor condition shown in Figure 10.4.
o Another is the subcooling of the condenser exit state (state 3), which differs from
the saturated liquid condition shown in Figure 10.4.

16
10.2.4 The p-h Diagram
 Pressure-enthalpy or p-h diagrams are widely used in refrigeration field.
 Principal states of vapor-compression cycles of Figure 10.5 are located on p-h diagram
(of Figure 10.6).

Figure 10.6 Principal features of the pressure-enthalpy diagram for a typical refrigerant,
with vapor-compression cycles superimposed.

17
Study Question 2:
A vapor-refrigeration cycle with Refrigerant 134a as the working fluid operates with an
evaporator temperature of 6oC and a condenser pressure of 1200 kPa. Saturated vapor
enters the compressor. Refrigerant enters the condenser at 60oC and exits as saturated
liquid. The cycle has a refrigeration capacity of 6 tons. Determine
(a) the quality of the refrigerant at the end of the throttling process,
(b) the refrigerant mass flow rate, in kg/s,
(c) the compressor isentropic efficiency,
(d) the compressor power, in kW, and
(e) the coefficent of performance.
Answer: (a) 0.2996 (b) 0.156 kg/s (c) 67.2% (d) 5.74 kW (e) 3.67

Study Question 3:
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapor at 100 kPa
and -24oC at a rate of 0.05 kg/s, and it leaves at 900 kPa and 60oC. The refrigerant is
cooled in the condenser to 28oC and 850 kPa, and it is throttled to 110 kPa. Disregarding
any heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines between the components, show
the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine
(a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, in kW,
(b) the power input to the compressor, in kW,
(c) the adiabatic efficiency of the compressor, and
(d) the coefficient of performance.
Answer: (a) 10.64 kW (b) 3.0 kW (c) 76.9% (d) 3.55

18
10.3 Selecting Refrigerants
 Refrigerant selection for a wide range of refrigeration and air--conditioning applications
is generally based upon three factors.
 Performance,
 Safety,
 Environmental impact.
 Performance refers to providing required cooling or heating capacity reliably or cost
effectively.
 Safety refers to avoiding hazards such as toxicity and flammability.
 Environmental impact refers to using refrigerants that do not harm stratosphere ozone
layer or contribute significantly to global climate change.

19
10.4 Cascade and Multistage Vapor-Compression Systems
 used to improve performance.
 Two variations are presented in this section:
 Combined cycle: in which refrigeration at relatively low temperature is achieved
through a series of vapor-compression systems, with each normally employing a
different refrigerant.
 Multistage compression with intercooling: the work of compression is reduced.

10.4.1 Cascade Cycles

 Combined cycle arrangements for refrigeration are called cascade cycles.
 A cascade cycle is shown in Figure 10.7.

Figure 10.7 Example of a cascade vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

20
 In the figure, two vapor compression refrigeration cycles, labeled A and B, are arranged
in series with a counterflow heat exchanger linking them.
 In the intermediate heat exchanger, the energy rejected during condensation of the
refrigerant in the lower-temperature cycle A is used to evaporate the refrigerant in
the higher-temperature cycle B.
 Energy balance for intermediate heat exchanger gives
 B  h 5 -h 8   m
m  A  h 2 -h 3 

 The desired refrigeration effect occurs in the low-temperature evaporator, and heat
rejection from the overall cycle occurs in the high-temperature condenser.
 The coefficient of performance is the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the total work
input
Q
in
 A  h1 -h 4 
m
β= =
 +W
WCA

CB
 B  h 6 -h 5  + m
m  A  h 2 -h1 
 The mass flow rates in cycles A and B are normally different.
 However, the mass flow rates are related by mass and energy rate balances on the
interconnecting counterflow heat exchanger serving as the condenser for cycle A and
the evaporator for cycle B.
 Although, only two cycles are shown in Figure 10.7, cascade cycles may employ
three or more individual cycles.
 A significant feature of the cascade system illustrated in Figure 10.7 is that the
refrigerants in the two or more stages can be selected to have reasonable evaporator
and condenser pressures in the two or more temperature ranges.
 In a double cascade system, a refrigerant would be selected for cycle A that has a
saturation pressure-temperature relationship that allows refrigeration at a relatively
low temperature without excessively low evaporator pressures.
 The refrigerant for cycle B would have saturation characteristics that permit
condensation at the required temperature without excessively high condenser
pressures.
 The coefficient of performance for the cascade system is higher than for a single fluid
unit.

21
Study Question 4:
A vapor-compression refrigeration
system operates with the cascade
arrangement shown in figure between
0.90 MPa and 0.16 MPa. Refrigerant
R134a is the working fluid for two
cycles. Intermediate heat exchanger
pressure is 0.40 MPa. If the mass flow
rate of the topping cycle is 0.25 kg/s,
determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the
bottoming cycle, in kg/s,
(b) total work in for the cascade, in
kW,
(c) the refrigeration capacity, in kW,
(d) the coefficient of performance for
the cascade, and
(e) the rate of exergy destruction in
the intermediate heat exchanger, in
kW. Let To=300K, po=100 kPa.
(f ) Show the cycle on the T-s diagram
relative to the saturation lines.
Answer: (a) 0.196 kg/s (b) 7.82 kW (c) 34.49 kW (d) 4.41 (e) 1.37 kW

22
10.4.2 Multistage Compression with Intercooling
 Intercooling is achieved in gas power systems by heat transfer to the lower-temperature
surroundings. In refrigeration systems, the refrigerant temperature is below that of the
surroundings for much of the cycle, so other means must be employed to accomplish
intercooling and achieve the attendant savings in the required compressor work input.
 An arrangement for two-stage compression using the refrigerant itself for intercooling is
shown in Figure 10.8.

Figure 10.8 Refrigeration cycle with two stages of compression and flash intercooling.

 The principal stages of the refrigerant for an ideal cycle are shown on the
accompanying T-s diagram.
 Intercooling is accomplished in this cycle by means of a direct contact heat
exchanger.

23
 Relatively low-temperature saturated vapor enters the heat exchanger at state 9,
where it mixes with higher-temperature refrigerant leaving the first compression
stage at state 2.
 A single mixed steam exits the heat exchanger at an intermediate temperature at state
3 and is compressed in the second compressor stage to the condenser pressure at state
4.
 Less work is required per unit mass flow for compression from 1 to 2 followed by
compression from 3 to 4, than for a single stage of compression 1-2-a.
 Since the refrigerant temperature entering the condenser at state 4 is lower than for a
single stage of compression in which the refrigerant would enter the condenser at
state a, the external irreversibility associated with heat transfer in the condenser is
also reduced.
 A central role is played in the cycle of Figure 10.8 by a liquid-vapor separator, called
a flash chamber.
 Refrigerant exiting the condenser at state 5 expands through a valve and enters the
flash chamber at state 6 as a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture with quality x.
 In the flash chamber, liquid and vapor components separate into two streams.
 Saturated vapor exiting the flash chamber enters the heat exchanger at state 9, where
intercooling is achieved as discussed above.
 Saturated liquid exiting the flash chamber at state 7 expands through a second valve
into the evaporator.
 On the basis of a unit of mass flowing through the condenser, the fraction of vapor
formed in the flash chamber equals the quality x of the refrigerant at state 6.
 The fraction of the liquid formed is then (1 - x).
 The fractions of the total flow at various locations are shown in parentheses on
Figure 10.8.

24
Study Question 5:
Refrigerant-134a is used in a
two-stage refrigeration system.
Condenser and intermediate
temperature are 1.4 MPa and
400 kPa, respectively.
Refrigerant-134a enters the
low-pressure compressor at -
28oC and a quality of 0.97, and
then it is mixed with saturated
vapor coming from flash
chamber, and it is compressed
in the high-pressure
compressor. The vapor of the
ammonia exiting the condenser
at 30oC is separated in the flash
chamber after expansion valve,
and it enters the low-pressure
expansion valve as saturated
liquid. Assuming that
compressors are isentropic,
show the cycle on a T-s diagram
and determine
(a) the coefficient of performance of the cycle, and
(b) the mass flow rate of the ammonia for 6 kW refrigeration power, in kg/min.
Answer: (a) 2.64 (b) 2.631 kg/min

25
10.5 Absorption Refrigeration
 These cycles have some features in common with the vapor-compression cycles
considered previously but differ in two important aspects.
 One main difference is the nature of the compression process.
o Instead of compressing a vapor between the evaporator and the condenser, the
refrigerant of an absorption system is absorbed by a secondary substance, called
an absorbent, to form a liquid solution.
o The liquid solution is then pumped to the higher pressure.
o Because the average specific volume of the liquid solution is much less than that
of the refrigerant vapor, significantly less work is required.
o Accordingly, absorption refrigeration systems have the advantage of relatively
small work input compared to vapor-compression systems.
 Second main difference between absorption and vapor-compression system is that
some means must be introduced in absorption system to retrieve the refrigerant vapor
from the liquid solution before the refrigerant enters the condenser.
o This involves heat transfer from a relatively high-temperature source.
o Steam or waste heat that otherwise would be discharged to the surroundings
without use is particularly economical for this purpose.
o Natural gas or some other fuel can be burned to provide the heat source, and
there have been practical applications of absorption refrigeration using alternative
energy sources such as solar and geothermal energy.
 The principal components of an absorption refrigeration system are shown
schematically in Figure 10.9.

26
 Figure 10.9 Simple ammonia-water absorption refrigeration system

o In this case, ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent.

o Ammonia circulates through the condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator as in
a vapor-compression system.
o However, the compressor is replaced by the absorber, pump, generator, and valve
shown on the right side of the diagram.
 In the absorber, ammonia vapor coming from the evaporator at state 1 is absorbed by
liquid water.
o The formation of this liquid solution is exothermic.
o Since the amount of ammonia that can be dissolved in water increases as the
solution temperature decreases, cooling water is circulated around the absorber to
remove the energy released as ammonia goes into solution and maintain the
temperature in the absorber as low as possible.
o The strong ammonia-water solution leaves the absorber at point a and enters the
pump, where its pressure is increased to that of the generator.

27
 In the generator, heat transfer from a high-temperature source drives ammonia vapor
out of the solution (an endothermic process), leaving a weak ammonia-water solution
in the generator.
 The vapor liberated passes to the condenser at state 2, and the remaining weak
solution at c flows back to the absorber through a valve.
 The only work input is the power required to operate the pump, and this is small in
comparison to the work that would be required to compress refrigerant vapor
between the same pressure levels.
 However, costs associated with the heat source and extra equipment not required by
vapor-compression systems can cancel the advantage of a smaller work input.
 Ammonia water systems normally employ several modifications of the simple
absorption cycle considered above.
o Two common modifications are illustrated in Figure 10.10.

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 Figure 10.10 Modified ammonia-water absorption system.
- In this cycle, a heat exchanger is included between the generator and the
absorber that allows the strong water-ammonia solution entering the generator
to be preheated by the weak solution returning from the generator to the

absorber, thereby reducing the heat transfer to the generator, Q G .
- The other modification shown on the figure is the rectifier placed between the
generator and the condenser.
The function of the rectifier is to remove any traces of water from the
refrigerant before it enters the condenser.
This eliminates the possibility of ice formation in the expansion valve and the
evaporator.
- Another type of absorption system uses lithium bromide as the absorbent and
water as the refrigerant.

29
The basic principle of operation is the same as for ammonia-water systems.
To achieve refrigeration at lower temperatures than the possible with water as
refrigerant, a lithium-bromide water absorption system may be combined with
another cycle using a refrigerant with good low temperature characteristics,
such as ammonia, to form a cascade refrigeration system.

30
10.6 Heat Pump Systems
 The objective of a heat pump is to maintain the temperature within a dwelling or other
building above the temperature of the surroundings or to provide a heat transfer for
certain industrial processes that occur at elevated temperatures.
 Heat pumps has many features in common with the refrigeration systems considered
thus far and may be of the vapor-compression or absorption type.
 Vapor compression heat pumps are well suited for space heating applications and are
commonly used for this purpose.
 Absorption heat pumps have been developed for industrial applications and are also
increasingly being used for space heating.

CARNOT HEAT PUMP CYCLE


 The objective of the Carnot heat pump cycle is to deliver the heat transfer Q out to the
warm region, which is the space to be heated.
 At steady state, the rate at which energy is supplied to the warm region by heat transfer

is the sum of the energy supplied to the working fluid from the cold region, Q in , and the

net rate of work input to the cycle, W net .
  
Q out  Q in  W net (10.8)
 The coefficient of performance of any heat pump cycle is defined as the ratio of the
heating effect to the net work required to achieve that effect. For the Carnot heat pump
cycle of Figure 10.1
 
Q out m
 max     
W c m W t m
area 2  a  b  3  2

area 1  2  3  4  1

TH  sa  sb  TH
  (10.9)
TH  TC  sa  sb  TH  TC

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 This equation, which corresponds to Eq. 5.11, represents the maximum theoretical
coefficient of performance for any heat pump cycle operation between two regions at
temperatures TC and TH.
 Actual heat pumps have coefficients of performance that are lower than Carnot heat
pump cycles.
 As the temperature TC of cold region decreases, the coeffient of performance of the
Carnot heat pump decreases.
 This trait is also exhibited by actual heat pump systems and suggests why heat
pumps in which the role of cold region is played by the local atmosphere (air-source
heat pumps) normally require backup systems to provide heating on days when the
ambient temperature becomes very low.
 If sources such as well water or the ground itself is used, relatively high coefficients
of performance can be achieved despite low ambient air temperatures, and backup
systems may not be required.

VAPOR COMPRESSION HEAT PUMPS

 Actual heat pump systems depart significantly from the Carnot cycle model.
 Most systems in common use today are of the vapor-compression type.
 The method of analysis of vapor-compression heat pumps is the same as that of vapor-
compression refrigeration cycles considered previously.
 The previous discussions concerning the departure of actual systems from ideality,
apply for vapor-compression heat pump systems as for vapor-compression refrigeration
cycles.
 As illustrated by Figure 10.11, a typical vapor-compression heat pump for space
heating has the same basic components as the vapor-compression refrigeration system:
compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator.

32
 Figure 10.11 Air-source vapor-compression heat pump system.

 However, the objective of the system is different.

 
 In a heat pump system, Q in comes from surroundings, and Q out is directed to the
dwelling as the desired effect.
 A net work input is required to accomplish this effect.
 The coefficient of performance of a simple vapor-compression heat pump with states
as designated on Figure 10.11 is

 
Q out m h2  h3
  
 (10.10)
Wc m h2  h1

  
 The value of  can never be less than unity ( Q out = Q in  W net ).
 Many possible sources are available for heat transfer to the refrigerant passing through
the evaporator.
 These include the outside air, the ground, and lake, river or well water.
 Liquid circulated through a solar collector and stored in an insulated tank also can be
used as a source for a heat pump.
 Industrial heat pumps employ waste heat or warm liquid or gas streams as the low-
temperature source and are capable of achieving relatively high condenser
temperatures.

33
 In the most common type of vapor-compression heat pump for space heating, the
evaporator communicates thermally with the outside air.
 Such air-source heat pumps also can be used to provide cooling in the summer with
the use of a reversing valve, as illustrated in Figure 10.12.

Figure 10.12 Example of an air-to-air reversing heat pump.

 The solid lines show the flow path of refrigerant in the heating mode, as described
previously.
 To use the same components as an air conditioner, the valve is actuated, and the
refrigerant follows the path indicated by the dashed line.
 In the cooling mode, the outside heat exchanger becomes the condenser, and the
inside heat exchanger becomes the evaporator.
 Although heat pumps can be more costly to install and operate than other direct heating
systems, they can be competitive when the potential for dual use is considered.

34
Study Question 6:
Vapor compression heat pump cycle
with Refrigerant 134a as the working
fluid provides heating at a rate of 14kW
to maintain a building at 21oC when the
outside temperature is 7oC. Saturated
vapor at 2.5bar leaves the evaporator and
saturated liquid at 9 bar leaves the
condenser. Assuming compressor
isentropic efficiency as 76% calculate
(a) the power input to the compressor, in
kW, and
(b) the coefficient of performance.
(c) Show the cycle on the T-s diagram relative to the saturation lines.
Answer: (a) 2.71 kW (b) 5.17

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10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems
 Gas refrigeration systems are the systems in which the working fluid remains a gas
throughout.
 The refrigeration systems have a number of important applications.
 They are used to achieve very low temperatures for the liquefaction of air and other
gases and for other specialized applications such as aircraft cabin cooling.
 Brayton refrigeration cycle illustrates an important type of gas refrigeration system.

BRAYTON REFRIGERATION CYCLE

 The Brayton refrigeration cycle is the reverse of the closed Brayton power cycle
introduced in Section 9.6.
 A schematic of the reversed Brayton cycle is provided in Figure 10.13a.

Figure 10.13 Brayton refrigeration cycle.

36
  The refrigerant gas, which may be air, enter the compressor at state 1, where
temperature is somewhat below the temperature of cold region, TC, and is
compressed to state 2.

 The gas is then cooled to state 3 (by refrigeration Q out ), where the gas temperature
approaches the temperature of the warm region, TH.
 Next, the gas is expanded to state 4, where the temperature T4, is well below that of
the cold region TC.
 Refrigeration is achieved through heat transfer from the cold region to the gas, as it
passes from state 4 to state 1, completing the cycle.
 The T-s diagram in Figure 10.13b shows an ideal Brayton refrigeration cycle,
denoted by 1-2s-3-4s-1, in which all processes are assumed to be internally reversible
and the processes in the turbine and compressor are adiabatic.
 Also shown is the cycle 1-2-3-4-1, which suggests the effects of irreversibilities
during adiabatic compression and expansion.
 Frictional pressure drops have been ignored.

CYCLE ANALYSIS
 At steady state the work of compressor and turbine per unit of mass flow are,
respectively
 
Wc Wt

 h2  h1 and 
 h3  h4
m m
 In obtaining these expressions, heat transfer with the surroundings and changes in
kinetic and potential energy have been ignored.
 In contrast to the vapor compression cycle of Figure 10.2, the work developed by the
turbine of a Brayton refrigeration cycle is significant relative to the compressor work
input.
 The heat transfer from the cold region to the refrigerant gas circulating through the low
pressure heat exchanger, the refrigeration effect, is

Q in

 h1  h4
m
 The coefficient of performance is the ratio of refrigeration effect to the net work input:

37
  
Q in m h1  h4
  (10.11)
 
W c m W t m
 
 h2  h1    h3  h4 

Study Question 7:
Air enters the compressor of an ideal Brayton refrigeration cycle at 150 kPa, 280 K, and is
compressed to 400 kPa. At the turbine inlet, the temperature is 325 K and the volumetric
flow rate is 0.5 m3/s. Determine
(a) the mass flow rate, in kg/s,
(b) the net power input, in kW,
(c) the refrigerating capacity, in kW, and
(d) the coefficient of performance.
Answer: (a) 2.144 kg/s (b) 23.763 kW (c) 74.42 kW (d) 3.14

38
ADDITIONAL GAS REFRIGERATION APPLICATINS
 To obtain even moderate refrigeration capacities with the Brayton refrigeration cycle,
equipment capable of achieving relatively high pressures and volumetric flow rates is
needed.
 For most applications involving air conditioning and for ordinary refrigeration
processes, vapor-compression systems can be built more cheaply and can operate
with higher coefficients of performance than gas refrigeration systems.
 With suitable modifications, gas refrigeration systems can be used to achieve
temperatures of about -150 oC, which are well below the temperatures normally
obtained with vapor systems.
 Figure 10.14 shows the schematic and T-s diagram of an ideal Brayton cycle modified
by the introduction of a regenerative heat exchanger.

Figure 10.14 Brayton refrigeration cycle with a regenerative heat exchanger.

 The heat exchanger allows the air entering the turbine at state 3 to be cooled below
the warm region temperature TH.
 In the subsequent expansion through the turbine, the air achieves a much lower
temperature at state 4 than would have been possible without the regenerative heat
exchanger.
 Accordingly, the refrigeration effect, achieved from state 4 to state b, occurs at a
correspondingly lower average temperature.
 An example of the application of gas refrigeration to cabin cooling in an aircraft is
illustrated in Figure 10.15.

39
 Figure 10.15 An application of gas refrigeartion to aircraft cabin cooling.

 As shown in the figure, a small amount of high-pressure air is extracted from the
main jet engine compressor and cooled by heat transfer to the ambient.
 The high pressure air is then expanded through an auxiliary turbine to the pressure
maintained in the cabin.
 The air temperature is reduced in the expansion and thus is able to fulfill its cabin
cooling function.
 As an additional benefit, the turbine expansion can provide some of the auxiliary
power needs of the aircraft.
 Size and weight are important considerations in the selection of equipment for use in
aircraft.
 Open-cycle systems utilize compact high-speed rotary turbines and compressors.
 Since the air for cooling comes directly from the surroundings, there are fewer heat
exchangers than would be needed if a separate refrigerant were circulated in a closed
vapor-compression cycle.

40