Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

To introduce some important aspects of vapor refrigeration, let us begin by considering a Carnot vapor
refrigeration cycle. This cycle is obtained by reversing the Carnot vapor power cycle introduced in Sec.
5.10. Figure 10.1 shows the schematic and accompanying T–s diagram of a Carnot refrigeration cycle
operating between a region at temperature TC and another region at a higher temperature TH. The cycle
is executed by a refrigerant circulating steadily through a series of components. All processes are
internally reversible. Also, since heat transfers between the refrigerant and each region occur with no
temperature differences, there are no external irreversibilities. The energy transfers shown on the
diagram are positive in the directions indicated by the arrows.

Figure 1. 1 Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle

Since the Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle is made up of internally reversible processes, areas on the T–s
diagram can be interpreted as heat transfers. Area 1–a–b–4–1 is the heat added to the refrigerant from
the cold region per unit mass of refrigerant flowing. Area 2–a–b–3–2 is the heat rejected from the
refrigerant to the warm region per unit mass of refrigerant flowing. The enclosed area 1–2–3–4–1 is the
net heat transfer from the refrigerant. The net heat transfer from the refrigerant equals the net work
done on the refrigerant. The net work is the difference between the compressor work input and the
turbine work output.

The coefficient of performance of any refrigeration cycle is the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the net
work input required to achieve that effect. For the Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle shown in Fig. 1.1, the
coefficient of performance is

which reduces to
Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers

Let us consider the steady-state operation of the vapor-

compression system illustrated in Fig. 10.3. Shown on the figure are
the principal work and heat transfers, which are positive in the
directions of the arrows. Kinetic and potential energy changes are neglected in the following analyses of
the components. We begin with the evaporator, where the desired refrigeration effect is achieved.

 As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, heat transfer from the refrigerated space
results in the vaporization of the refrigerant. For a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side
of the evaporator, the mass and energy rate balances reduce to give the rate of heat transfer per
unit mass of refrigerant flowing as

 M is the mass flow rate of the refrigerant. The heat transfer rate Qin is referred to as the
refrigeration capacity. In the SI unit system, the capacity is normally expressed in kW. In the
English unit system, the refrigeration capacity may be expressed in Btu/h. Another commonly
used unit for the refrigeration capacity is the ton of refrigeration, which is equal to 200 Btu/min
or about 211 kJ/min.
 The refrigerant leaving the evaporator is compressed to a relatively high pressure and
temperature by the compressor. Assuming no heat transfer to or from thec ompressor, the mass
and energy rate balances for a control volume enclosing the compressor give

where Wc/m is the rate of power input per unit mass of refrigerant flowing.

 Next, the refrigerant passes through the condenser, where the refrigerant condenses and there
is heat transfer from the refrigerant to the cooler surroundings. For a control volume enclosing
the refrigerant side of the condenser, the rate of heat transfer from the refrigerant per unit mass
of refrigerant flowing is

 Finally, the refrigerant at state 3 enters the expansion valve and expands to the evaporator
pressure. This process is usually modeled as a throttling process for which
In the vapor-compression system, the net power input is equal to the
compressor power, since the expansion valve involves no power input
or output. Using the quantities and expressions introduced above, the
coefficient of performance of the vaporcompression refrigeration system

Performance of Ideal Vapor-Compression Systems

If irreversibilities within the evaporator and condenser are ignored, there are no frictional
pressure drops, and the refrigerant flows at constant pressure through the two heat exchangers.
If compression occurs without irreversibilities, and stray heat transfer to the surroundings is also
ignored, the compression process is isentropic. With these considerations, the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle labeled 1–2s–3–4–1 on the T–s diagram of Fig. 1.2 results. The
cycle consists of the following series of processes:

Figure 1. 2 T–s diagram of an ideal vapor-compression cycle.

Process 1–2s: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant from state 1 to the condenser pressure
at state 2s.
Process 2s–3: Heat transfer from the refrigerant as it fl ows at constant pressure through the
condenser. The refrigerant exits as a liquid at state 3.
Process 3–4: Throttling process from state 3 to a two-phase liquid–vapor mixture at 4.
Process 4–1: Heat transfer to the refrigerant as it fl ows at constant pressure through the
evaporator to complete the cycle.

Example 1
 Refrigerant 134a is the working fluid in an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle that
communicates thermally with a cold region at 0C and a warm region at 30C. Saturated vapor
enters the compressor at 0C and saturated liquid leaves the condenser at 30C. The mass flow
rate of the refrigerant is 0.1 kg/s. Determine (a) the compressor power, in kW, (b) the
refrigeration capacity, in tons, (c) the coefficient of performance, and (d) the coefficient of
performance of a Carnot refrigeration cycle operating between warm and cold regions at 30 and
0C, respectively.

Example 2

Modify Example 1 to allow for temperature differences between the refrigerant and the warm and cold
regions as follows. Saturated vapor enters the compressor at -10C. Saturated liquid leaves the condenser
at a pressure of 9 bar. Determine for the modified vapor-compression refrigeration cycle (a) the
compressor power, in kW, (b) the refrigeration capacity, in tons, (c) the coefficient of performance.
Compare results with those of Example 1

Performance of Actual Vapor-Compression Systems

Figure 10.5 illustrates several features exhibited by actual vapor-compression systems. As shown
in the figure, the heat transfers between the refrigerant and the warm and cold regions are not
accomplished reversibly: The refrigerant temperature in the evaporator is less than the cold
 region temperature, TC, and the refrigerant temperature in the condenser is greater than the
warm region temperature, TH. Such irreversible heat transfers have a significant effect on
performance. In particular, the coefficient of performance decreases as the average temperature
of the refrigerant in the evaporator decreases and as the average temperature of the refrigerant
in the condenser increases. Example 10.2 provides an illustration.

Figure 1. 3 T–s diagram of an actual vapor-compression cycle.

Other Vapor-Compression Applications.

Cold Storage
Chilling water or making ice during off-peak periods, usually overnight or over weekends, and storing
chilled water/ice in tanks until needed for cooling is known as cold storage. Cold storage is an aspect of
thermal energy storage considered in the box on p. 116. Applications of cold storage include cooling of
office and commercial buildings, medical centers, college campus buildings, and shopping malls

Figure 1. 4 Cold storage applied to comfort cooling.

Cascade Cycles

Combined-cycle arrangements for refrigeration are called cascade cycles. In Fig. 10.9 a cascade cycle is
shown in which two vapor-compression refrigeration cycles, labeled A and B, are arranged in series with
a counterflow heat exchanger linking them. In the intermediate heat exchanger, the energy rejected
during condensation of the refrigerant in the lower-temperature cycle A is used to evaporate the
refrigerant in the higher-temperature cycle B. The desired refrigeration effect occurs in the
lowtemperature evaporator, and heat rejection from the overall cycle occurs in the hightemperature
condenser. The coefficient of performance is the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the total work input

Heat Pump Systems

The objective of a heat pump is to maintain the temperature within a dwelling or other building above
the temperature of the surroundings or to provide a heat transfer for certain industrial processes that
occur at elevated temperatures. Heat pump systems have many features in common with the
refrigeration systems considered thus far and may be of the vapor-compression or absorption type.
Vapor-compression heat pumps are well suited for space heating applications and are commonly used
for this purpose. Absorption heat pumps have been developed for industrial applications and are also
increasingly being used for space heating. To introduce some aspects of heat pump operation, let us
begin by considering the Carnot heat pump cycle.

1. Carnot Heat Pump Cycle

By simply changing our viewpoint, we can regard the cycle shown in Fig. 10.1 as a heat pump. The
objective of the cycle now, however, is to deliver the heat transfer Qout to the warm region, which is the
space to be heated. At steady state, the rate at which energy is supplied to the warm region by heat
transfer is the sum of the energy supplied to the working fluid from the cold region, Qin, and the net rate
of work input to the cycle, W net. That is,

The coefficient of performance of any heat pump cycle is defined as the ratio of the heating effect to the
net work required to achieve that effect. For the Carnot heat pump cycle of Fig. 1.1

which reduces to

2. Vapor-Compression Heat Pumps

Actual heat pump systems depart significantly from the Carnot cycle model. Most systems in common
use today are of the vapor-compression type. The method of analysis of vapor-compression heat pumps
is the same as that of vapor-compression refrigeration cycles considered previously. Also, the previous
discussions concerning the departure of actual systems from ideality apply for vapor-compression heat
pump systems as for vapor-compression refrigeration cycles.

Figure 1. 5 Air-source vapor-compression heat pump system

The coefficient of performance of a simple vapor-compression heat pump with states as designated on
Fig. 1.5 is

The value of y can never be less than unity.

Many possible sources are available for heat transfer to the refrigerant passing through the evaporator,
including outside air; the ground; and lake, river, or well water. Liquid circulated through a solar collector
and stored in an insulated tank also can be used as a source for a heat pump. Industrial heat pumps
employ waste heat or warm liquid or gas streams as the low-temperature source and are capable of
achieving relatively high condenser temperatures The value of can never be less than unity. Many
possible sources are available for heat transfer to the refrigerant passing through the evaporator,
including outside air; the ground; and lake, river, or well water. Liquid circulated through a solar collector
and stored in an insulated tank also can be used as a source for a heat pump. Industrial heat pumps
employ waste heat or warm liquid or gas streams as the low-temperature source and are capable of
achieving relatively high condenser temperatures

.Brayton Refrigeration Cycle

The method of analysis of the Brayton refrigeration cycle is similar to that of the Brayton power cycle.
Thus, at steady state the work of the compressor and the turbine per unit of mass flow are, respectively,

Figure 1. 6 Brayton refrigeration cycle

In obtaining these expressions, heat transfer with the surroundings and changes in kinetic and potential
energy have been ignored. The magnitude of the work developed by the turbine of a Brayton
refrigeration cycle is typically significant relative to the compressor work input. Heat transfer from the
cold region to the refrigerant gas circulating through the low-pressure heat exchanger, the refrigeration
effect, is

The coefficient of performance is the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the net work input:

Example
Refrigerant 134a is the working fluid in an electric-powered, air-source heat pump that maintains the
inside temperature of a building at 22C for a week when the average outside temperature is 5C.
Saturated vapor enters the compressor at -8C and exits at 50C, 10 bar. Saturated liquid exits the
condenser at 10 bar. The refrigerant mass flow rate is 0.1 kg/s for steady-state operation. Determine (a)
the compressor power, in kW, (b) the isentropic compressor efficiency, (c) the heat transfer rate provided
to the building, in kW, (d) the coefficient of performance, and (e) the total cost of electricity, in $, for 80
hours of operation during that week, evaluating electricity at 15 cents per kW h.