Gas Power Cycles - Mech Engineering: Thermodynamics

wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/MechEngThermodyn/Gas+Power+Cycles

Carnot cycle
In 1824 Carnot suggested a particular cycle of operation for a CHPP which avoided all
irreversibilities. It consisted of four processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic. The process
take place between a heat source at temperature T h and a heat sink at temperature T c. The
system is a mass of gas behind a piston. The cycle on a p-v diagram is shown below:

In state A the gas is temperature Th and the

cylinder is fully insulated

Adiabatic expansion (A to B)

The gas expands adiabatically and very slowly,

i.e., quasi-statically (and therefore reversibly).
As the gas expands its U decreases (dU=Q-W)
and its temperature drops until it reaches Tc.

Isothermal Compression (B to C)

When the gas reaches temperatures T c the

heat reservoir at temperature Tc is brought
into contact with the cylinder end. The gas is
then compressed quasi statically from state B to C
and at constant temperature with heat transfer
from the gas to the reservoir through a negilible
temperature difference. Thus process B to C is
also reversible

Adiabatic Compression (C to D)

At C the heat reservoir at temperature T c is removed and

the insulation put back. Then slow compression from C to
D. At D the temperature reaches T h. Again process is
reversible

Isothermal expansion (D to A)

At D the heat reservoir at temperature T h is brought into contact with the cylinder and as a
result slow isothermal expansion occurs from state D to A, there by completing the cycle.
It is possible to show that the efficiency of this reversible CHPP depends only on temperature.
Thermodynamic temperature scale

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Theorem
All reversible cyclic engines operating between the same two
temperature level have the same (Maximum) efficiency.

Proof:
Assume opposite is true and show before that PMM2 is
produced.
Because all reversible engines, whatever their internal
processes or materials, operating between the same two
thermal reservoirs have the same efficiency, then there must
be some common factor which determines the efficiency.
Clearly the only common factor is the temperature of the
two reservoirs. Therefore the efficiency of a reversible heat

Shows three heat reservoir and three reversible engines working on Carnot Cycle.

T1 is the highest temperature, T3 the lowest and T2 is the intermediate temperature.

Q1 is the same for engines A & C.
The two engines in conjunction (A&B) must have the same efficiency as (c) (they operate
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between the same temperature levels).
Therefore, 1W2 + 2W3 = 1W3 and Q3 is the same for both sides.
Since efficiency of Carnot cycle is a function of temperature only then:

Applying these to the different engines we get:

But...
Thus...

Now, the LHS is a function of T1 and T3 (and not T2) and therefore the RHS of the equation must
also be a function of T1 and T3 (and not T2) i.e. the function must be

Thus f(T2) will cancel out of the product

Therefore:

In general:

There are several relations that will satisfy this equation, eg:

Logarithmic

Linear and so on...

Lord Kelvin proposed the Linear relationship ie.

(1)This relationship defines the Thermodynamic (or Absolute)

temperature scale.
With temperature so defined, the efficiency of a carnot cycle may be
expressed as
(2)

Note:

(i ) It is impossible to attain negative temperatures on the absolute

scale. If TL is negative > 1 i.e. a PMM2 which is impossible.
(ii) It is impossible (in the absence of a perfect insulator) for a finite
system to attain zero temperature on the absolute scale. If T​L =0 then
=1 i.e. Violates the second law. But we can get very close to T=0.

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Units
Equation (1) only defines a ratio of absolute temperature but does not
give information about the scale. In this case we need to define only one
temperature point, since there is zero temperature.
Mark triple point of water 273.16K
Then temperature of melting ice is 273.16K and that of boiling water at 1 atm 373.15K, thus
preserving the 100 units between ice and boiling point so that it corresponds in units to
temperature difference in celcius scale.

The maximum efficiency obtainted if we make T C as low as possible and TH as high as possible.
TC is practically limited by the temperature of the sea or ocean which is nearby the power plant
ie 10-20oC or 283-303K. The upper limit is set by the metallurgical properties and at present it is
limited to about 600oC for alloyed steel. So the maximum achievable efficiency of an engine is

Or 67%.

Now if we reduce TC to the boiling point of liquid Helium ie.e.40K we

get:

Gas power cycles

Deal with systems that produce power in which the working fluid remains a gas throughout the
cycle ( in other words, there is no change in phase).
Spark Ignition (gasoline) engines, Compression ignition (diesel) engines and conventional gas
turbine engines (generally refer to as Internal Combustion engines or IC Engines) are some
examples of engines that operate on gas cycles.

Air standard cycles

Internal combustion engines: Combustion of fuel is non-cyclic process. Working fluid, air-fuel
mixture undergoes permanent chemical change due to combustion Products are thrown out of
the engine & Fresh charge is taken in.

Hence, the working fluid doesn't undergo a thermodynamic cycle.In order to analyze this
complex gas power cycles, air standard cycles are conceived.
In air standard cycle a certain mass of air operates in a complete thermodynamic cycle where
the heat is added and rejected using external reservoirs, and all the processes in the cycle are
reversible.

Summary of assumptions made during such analysis:The working fluid, air behaves like an
ideal gas (and specific heats are assumed to be constant)
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Combustion process is replaced by heat addition and exhaust process by heat rejection
All the processes are reversible.
Internal combustion engines
There are two types of reciprocating engines:
Spark Ignition- Otto cycle
Compression Ignition-Diesel cycle

IC Engines overview
Air and fuel mixture flows through inlet valve and exhaust leaves through exhaust valve
Converts reciprocating motion to rotary motion using piston and crank shaft
TDC; Top Dead Center: Position of the piston where it forms the smallest volume
BDC; Bottom Dead Center: Position of the piston where it forms the largest volume
Stroke: Distance between TDC and BDC
Bore: Diameter of the piston (internal diameter of the cylinder)
Clearance volume: minimum volume formed
Compression ratio: ratio of maximum volume to minimum volume VBDC/VTDC
Engine displacement = (# of cylinders) x (stroke length) x (bore area) (usually given in cc or liters)
MEP: mean effective pressure: A const. theoretical pressure that if acts on piston produces work
same as that during an actual cycle
Wnet = MEP x Piston area x Stroke

= MEP x displacement volume

4 Stoke engine

Cycle consists of four distinct strokes (processes):

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Intake
Compression stroke
Power stroke
Exhaust

Otto cycle

Assumptions for Air standard cycle, as describe before:

Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
Combustion process replaced by constant volume heat addition with piston at TDC
Intake and exhaust not considered, cycle completed with constant volume heat removal with
piston at BDC

All processes considered internally reversible

Air-Standard Otto cycle

Process 1- 2 Isentropic Compression
Process 2 - 3 Const. volume heat addition
Process 3 - 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 - 1 Constant volume heat removal

Otto Cycle- indicator diagram of otto cycle

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Otto, P-V and T-S diagram

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Compression ratio

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From previous definition, compression ratio =

Since fixed mass:

1-2 Isentropic compression

Applying First law:

U2-U1 = Q - Win
Q = 0 (since, reversible adiabatic compression)
Win = U2-U1

2-3 Constant volume heat addition

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 Applying First law:

U3-U2 = +Qin - W
W = 0 (since, it is a constant volume process)
Qin = U3-U2

3-4 Isentropic Expansion

Applying First law:

U4-U3 = Q - Wout
Q = 0 (rev. adiabatic expansion)
Wout = U4-U3

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4-1 Constant volume heat removal

Applying First law:

U1-U4 = - Qout + W
W = 0 (no piston work)
Qout = U4-U1

Otto cycle thermal efficiency

The thermal efficiency is given by:

The specific heats are assumed to be constant.

Here y=1.4 at ambient temperature

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For higher efficiency, higher compression ratios are required, as shown below.

However, increase in pressure ratios, would increase the air-fuel temperature above the
temperature at which the mixture can auto-ignite.

This would result in 'engine-knock', reducing the performance of the engine. In order to avoid
such situations, additives are generally added which increases the auto-ignition temperature.

4 Stroke CI engine

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Cycle consists of four distinct strokes (processes) as in the case of SI engines, except that the
spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector
- Intake
- Compression stroke
- Power stroke
- Exhaust

Here the fuel is injected when the piston

approaches TDC, ie when the air is at
maximum temperature due to
compression.
The combustion process starts now

The fuel is injected after the piston starts

moving down The volume increases, on the
other hand, the fuel evaporates to fill the
volume. Thus keeping the pressure inside
roughly the same.

Hence the combustion can be considered to

occur at constant pressure.

Diesel Cycle

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Assumptions for Air standard cycle, as describe before:
- Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
- Combustion process replaced by constant pressure heat addition
- Intake and exhaust not considered, cycle completed with constant volume heat removal with
piston at BDC
- All processes considered internally reversible

Air-Standard Otto cycle

Process 1- 2 Isentropic Compression
Process 2 - 3 Const. pressure heat addition
Process 3 - 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 - 1 Constant volume heat removal

Diesel T-S and P-V diagram

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Three Volume Ratios
From previous definition:

Thermal Efficiency of Diesel Cycle

Given:

(1)

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

(2)
Process 2-3: Isobaric heat addition
(3)
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion

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(4)
Thermal efficiency

From 2, 3 and 4 all temperatures can be expressed in terms of T3.

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 Otto and Diesel Cycle Comparison
For given rc higher thermal efficiency is
obtained via higher compression ratio rv
and for a given rv higher thermal
efficiency is achieved by lowering
the cut-off ratio rc

However a smaller rc yields less net work per cycle, so to achieve the same power at lower rc
values higher engine speeds are required.

Otto and Diesel cycle comparison

Therefore, the efficiency of the diesel

cycle is less than that of the otto cycle for
the same compression ration. However,
the advantages of Diesel over petrol
engines is that we can operate at higher
compression ratios without auto ignition
and fuel is less expensive.

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Gas Turbine Power Plants
Gas turbine power plants are lighter and compact when compared to power plants running on
vapour cycles. The power to weight ratios are generally high for high throughout Gas turbine
power plants and hence are favoured for the aviation and also for power generation.
A simple GT power plant is shown in the image below.Air is first compressed
The compressed air enters the combustion chamber where fuel is injected and burned,
essentially at constant pressure
The combustion products expand in turbine to the ambient pressure and thrown out to the
surroundings.

Air Standard Brayton Cycle

Brayton cycle is the air standard for GT power plant.

Air is first compressed reversibly and adiabatically

Heat is added to it reversibly at constant pressure

Air expands reversibly, adiabatically in the turbine The heat is removed from the system
reversibly at constant pressure to bring it to original state

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Brayton cycle therefore consists of two isobars and two reversible adiabatics (isentropics):

Air is first compressed reversibly and adiabatically

Heat is added to it reversibly at constant pressure

Air expands reversibly, adiabatically in the turbine The heat is removed from the system
reversibly at constant pressure to bring it to original state
P-V, T-S diagram of ideal Brayton Cycle

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1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant pressure heat removal

Thermal efficiency:
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle is

Since processes 1-2 & 3-4 are isentropic between the same
pressures :-

Where rv is the pressure ratio

Hence, substituting in the efficiency expression

This is the efficiency for ideal Joule/Brayton Cycle.

Work Ratio

It may easily be shown from the expression,

Work ratio =

And a similar approach to that above, that work ratio =

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What we deduce from the above equations above improvements that we might make?
h is increased by :-
increasing T3
decreasing T4 or
increasing the pressure ratio

We also know that a high work ratio is desirable in order to minimize the
effect of irreversibilities in real gas turbines. This depends on the
temperature limits and the pressure ratio for constant gamma.

Consider the T-S diagram below for the ideal cycle & the dotted cycles.

T3 is usually fixed by metallurgical limits on turbine

blading & T1 is the natural sink temperature for an
ideal cooler. The two dotted cycles show the limits of
operation. Consider left hand dotted cycle. Here the pressure ratio is
large & the cycle efficiency approaches the Carnot Efficiency ie T2 has
been raised. Unfortunately the net work output is approaching
zero. The other dotted cycle has a reduced T2 & again net work output
is approaching zero. It can be shown that for an ideal cycle with fixed T1
and T3, the value of T2 for maximum work output is:

Irreversibilities and isentropic efficiencies

We shall only consider the effect of irreversibilities upon compression and expansion
processes. Irreversibilities in heaters and coolers who up as pressure drops and are not
considered here.
The two T-S diagrams, show the effect on compression and expansion processes in general
from state 1 to state 2. These are analogous to the similar diagrams for the Rankine cycle except
that they are processes of a perfect gas. Then for the steady flow compression process:-

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For the steady flow compression process:

For the steady flow expansion process:

Note that Celsius temperatures may also be used in these expressions.

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