Heaven's Light is Our Guide

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering
B. Sc. Engineering 2nd year even Semester Examination, 2010
Course No.: ME 2101 Course Title: Thermodynamics

Full Marks: 72 Time: Three Hours

N.B.: i) Answers Six question taking Three from each section.

ii) Figures in the margin indicate full marks.
ii) Use separate answer script for each section
iv) Charts and tables may be used if required.
SECTION-A
Q.1 (a) What is Clausius inequality theorem? What is the significance of Clausius-Clapeyron equation?
(b) Explain clearly what is meant by entropy of a gas. Derive an expression for the approximate heat
absorbed by a gas when heated from an absolute temperature T1 to T2 and initial entropy of S1 to S2.
(c) What is the difference between characteristic gas constant and universal gas constant?

Q.2 (a) Discuss, giving diagrammatic sketch, the application of reversed cycle for refrigeration.
(b) For a certain refrigerator working on reversed carnot cycle, the COP is 5. It extracts 8350 KJ/min from
a chamber which is to be maintained at a temperature lower than that of surroundings. Find out the
heat rejected to the surroundings and the power required to run the compressor. If a heat pump is to
work on this cycle consuming the same power, and extracting the same amount of heat, calculate the
reciprocal thermal efficiency of the pump.

Q.3 (a) What are the assumptions for air standard cycles? Make a list for five air standard cycles.
(b) Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of the diesel cycle.
(c) A gas power generation plant operates on a Brayton, cycle. The maximum and minimum
temperature and pressure are 1200K, 0.38MPa, and 290K, 0.095MPa. Determine the power output of
the turbine and the fraction of the power from the turbine used to operate compressor of a plant whose
net output is 40,000 kW.

Q.4 (a) Write down the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics. What is the
"perpetual motion machine of the second kind?"

Kelvin - Planck Statement:

According to Kelvin-Planck “it is impossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic process, whose
sole purpose is to convert heat energy from a single thermal reservoir into an equivalent amount of
work”. In other words, no actual heat engine, working on a cyclic process, can convert whole of the heat
supplied to it, into mechanical work. It means that there is a degradation of energy in the process of
producing mechanical work from the heat supplied. Thus the Kelvin - Planck statement of the second

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law of thermodynamics, is sometimes known as law of degradation of energy.

Perpetual motion machine of the second kind:

PPM2 suggests a machine which could produce work, while continuously absorbing heat from a
reservoir or source.

But the PPM2 violates the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.

The Kelvin-Planck’s statement of Second Law states that it is impossible for a heat engine to exist which
produces work in a complete cycle, while dealing with a single body at a fixed temperature.

Basically it means that heat being a low-grade energy can never be converted into work with 100%
efficiency. While work is being a high-grade form of energy can be completely converted into heat.
Mathematically, when work is converted into heat, we always have:

While when heat is converted to work in a complete closed cycle process, we have:

Therefore whenever any machine will absorb heat to produce work, it will lose/radiate some energy to
the surrounding (also called a sink).

(b) "The thermal efficiency of an engine could be 100% if the first law were our only guide"- justify this
statement in context of the second law.

According to the first law, when any closed system is taken through a cycle, the net work done by the
system is proportional to the net heat taken by the system from the surrounding. So as long as the heat
and work are equivalent it satisfies the first law. This conception of the First law leads us to the
statement that "Thermal efficiency of an engine could be 100%". But this statement cannot be true if we
consider the second law. Which States that, it is impossible to construct a system which will operate in a
cycle, extract heat from a reservoir, and do an equivalent amount of work on the surrounding. Here for
the system to complete the cycle two reservoir is needed. The high temperature reservoir will supply
heat to system and the low temperature one will take heat out of the system and maintain the cyclic
process. For losing some heat in the lower temperature reservoir, the equivalency of heat and work is
not possible. As a result the efficiency cannot be 100%. We know a process cannot occur unless it
satisfies both first law and second law. So the following statement, “the thermal efficiently of an engine
could be 100%" is true if we only consider the first law. But in real case it’s impossible as it violates the
second law.

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(c) Establish the expression for Clausius inequality: ∮
What is the physical meaning of Entropy?

The physical meaning of entropy is that entropy is a measure of degree of disorder (or randomness) of a
system. The relation between entropy and disorder provides a suitable explanation for entropy change
in various processes. The greater the disorder in a system, the higher is the entropy. Obviously, for a
given substance the solid state is the state of lowest entropy (most ordered state), the gaseous state is
the state of highest entropy and the liquid state, is intermediate between the two. In the case of mixing
of two gases when the stopcock is opened, the gases mix to achieve more randomness or disorder. In
this case, there is no exchange of matter or energy between the system and the surroundings. The
change occurs from ordered state (less entropy) to disordered state (higher entropy). Thus the change in
entropy is positive.

SECTION-B

Q.5 (a) What are the main components of a heat engine? Draw a schematic diagram of heat engine.

Components of a heat engine:

1. The bench. 9. Crankshaft
2. The cylinder. 10. The spark plug
3. Tray, oil tank 11. Valve spring
4. The crankshaft. 12. Camshaft
5. Connecting rod 13. Rocker
6. Plunger pin 14. Exhaust valve
7. The piston. 15. Suction valve
8. Compression rings 16. Valve head

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(b) Describe the working principle of a four-stroke diesel engine showing its P-V and T-S diagram.

The working of these four processes of Diesel cycle can be easily grasped with the help of P-V and T-S
diagram.

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Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression
In this process the piston moves from BDC to TDC and compression of air takes place isentropically. It
means that during compression the entropy remains constant and there is no flow of heat out of the
cylinder walls (non-conductors) happens. Here the air is compressed so the pressure increases from P1
to P2, volume decreases from V1 to V2, Temperature increases from T1 to T2 and entropy remains
constant ( i.e. S1 = S2).

Process 2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition

In this process the, the hot body is kept in contact with the cylinder and heat addition to the air takes
place at constant pressure. During this process, the piston rest for a moment at TDC. The pressure
remains constant (i.e. P2 = P3), volume increases from V2 to V3, temperature increases from T2 to T3,
entropy increases from S2 to S3.

Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

In this process, after heat addition, the expansion of air takes place isentropically and work is obtained
from the system. The piston moves downward during this process and reaches to BDC. The pressure falls
from P3 to P4, Volume increases from V3 to V4, the temperature falls from T3 to T4 and entropy
remains constant (i.e. S3=S4).

Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection

In this process, the piston rest at BDC for a moment and the cold body is brought in contact with the
cylinder and the heat rejection takes place at constant volume. The pressure decreases from P4 to P1,
temperature decreases from T4 to T1, entropy decreases from S4 to S1 and volume remains constant
(i.e.V4 = V1).
This is the four working process of diesel cycle engine that we have discussed. Now we will discuss how
this cycle is implemented in the 4 stroke diesel engine. When this cycle is used in 4 stroke diesel engine
than we have 2 extra processes. One is the suction process and the other one is the exhaust process. For
heat addition diesel is used as fuel which burns and adds heat.
Let’s discuss all the process in detail
 0-1: Suction process (Suction stroke)
 1-2: Isentropic compression process (compression stroke)
 2-3: Constant volume heat addition (ignition and combustion of fuel)
 3-4: Isentropic Expansion (power stroke)
 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection (coolant comes in contact with cylinder walls)
 1-0: Exhaust process (Exhaust stroke)

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Process 0-1: Suction process
In this process, the inlet valve opens and suction of air takes place at atmospheric pressure. It is called as
suction stroke.

Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression

The air sucked is now compressed isentropically. Due to the compression, the temperature of the air
increases to such level at which the diesel gets ignites. It is called as compression stroke.

Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition

At the end of the compression, the piston is at TDC and at this time, the diesel fuel is injected into the
cylinder through fuel injector in atomized form. As this atomized diesel fuel comes in contact with the
hot compressed air, it gets ignited and combustion process starts. The combustion of fuel adds heats to
the engine.

Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

The combustion process adds a large amount of heat and this creates a large force on the piston head
and it moves downward from TDC to BDC. It is the power stroke.

Process: 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection

The piston is at BDC and the coolant comes in contact with the cylinder walls and takes away heat from
the engine and makes it cool. After that piston moves upward.

Process: 1-0: Exhaust Process

In this process, the piston moves from BDC to TDC and exhaust valve opens. All the burnt gases left in
the cylinder escapes out through exhaust valve. It is the exhaust stroke.

This is how a four stroke compression engine works.

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(c) How will you conduct the performance test of a petrol engine?

Basic measurements to be undertaken to evaluate the performance of an engine are as follows:

 Speed
 Fuel consumption
 Air consumption
 Brake power
 Indicated power
 Friction power
 Heat balance sheet or performance of SI and CI engine
 Exhaust gas analysis
1. Measurements of speed:
Measurements of IC engine speed are done to count the number of revolutions in a given time. The
device used to perform this is called Tachometer.
2. Fuel consumption measurement:
Two basic types of fuel measurement methods are:
-Volumetric type: measured by determining the volume flow in a given time interval and multiplying it
by the specific gravity of the fuel which should be measured occasionally to get an accurate value.
-Gravimetric type: measured by determining the time required for consumption of a given mass of fuel.
3. Measurement of air consumption:
In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult because the flow is
pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of the engine and because the air a compressible fluid. The various
methods and meters used for air flow measurement include,
(a) Air box method, and
(b) Viscous-flow air meter
4. Measurement of brake power:
The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed of the
engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer. Dynamometers can be
broadly classified into two main types,
a) Power absorption dynamometers: measure and absorb the power output of the engine to which they
are coupled. Power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means. Example of such
dynamometers is prony brake, rope brake, hydraulic dynamometer, etc.
b) Transmission dynamometer: the power is transmitted to the load coupled to the engine after it is
indicated on some type of scale. These are also called torque-meters.
5. Measurement of indicated power:
The power developed in the cylinder is known as Indicated Horse Power and is designated as IP. The IP
of an engine at a particular running condition is obtained from the indicator diagram. The indicator
diagram is the p-v diagram for one cycle at that load drawn with the help of indicator fitted on the
engine.
6. Measurement of frictional power:
The difference between indicated power and the brake power output of an engine is the friction power.

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Friction power, (f.p.) = i .p.- b.p.
Almost invariably, the difference between a good engine and a bad engine is due to difference between
their frictional losses. The frictional losses are ultimately dissipated to the cooling system (and exhaust)
as they appear in the form of frictional heat and this influences the cooling capacity required. Moreover,
lower friction means availability of more brake power; hence brake specific fuel consumption is lower.
7. Heat balance sheet:
In IC engine, total input energy is not fully converted to useful work; energy goes out in various ways.
The heat balance gives the detail of amount of energy wasted in percentage from various parts. The
main components of the heat balance are:
o Heat equivalent to the effective (brake) work of the engine,
o Heat rejected to the cooling medium,
o Heat carried away from the engine with the exhaust gases, and
o Unaccounted losses.
8. Exhaust gas analysis:
Exhaust emissions such as smoke, oxides of nitrogen, unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxides etc.
are necessary to consider as a performance parameters and components of air pollutions.

Q.6 (a) Methanol is burnt with stoichiometric air. Write the chemical equation and calculate the air-fuel
ratio. Repeat the same when methanol is burnt with 10% excess air.
(b) An IC engine is supplied with a mixture of octane vapor and air. Under steady state conditions the
dry exhaust gas analysis shows 13% CO2. Assuming the combustion to be complete, determine the fuel-
air ratio by volume.

Q.7 (a) What is the purpose of engine testing? Name the different performance parameters.

Purpose of engine testing:

 To find out performance before mass production and fitting it into a vehicle.
 To improve the design and configuration, to integrate new materials and technology
 Historically, the test basically was to find out the power and fuel consumption, also to test
effectiveness of cooling, vibration and noise, lubrication, controllability, etc.
 Modern regulations force engines to reduce harmful emission and comply stringent regulations,
therefore, test is getting more and more sophisticated.

Some Performance parameters are

1. Mean Effective Pressure
i. indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
ii. brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)
iii. friction mean effective pressure (FMEP)
2. Mean Piston Speed
3. Specific Power Output
4. Specific Fuel Consumption

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 5. Air-Fuel Ratio
6. Calorific Value of the Fuel

(b) Define i) brake power, ii) indicated power, iii) mean effective pressure and iv) specific fuel
consumption.

Brake Power: The brake power of an IC Engine is the power available at the crankshaft. The brake power
of an I.C. engine is, usually, measured by means of a brake mechanism such as prony brake or rope
brake.
Indicated Power: The Indicated Power is defined as the power produced due to combustion of fuel
within the cylinder in an IC Engine. It is essentially the sum of the Friction and the Brake Powers.
Mean Effective Pressure: The mean effective pressure can be regarded as an average pressure in the
cylinder for a complete engine cycle. By definition, mean effective pressure is the ratio between the
work and engine displacement.
Specific Fuel consumption: Specific Fuel consumption is defined as the ratio of the fuel consumed per
unit time to the power output generated.

(c) A 4-cylinder, 4-stroke engine gave the following results on a test bed: Shaft speed: 2500 rpm; torque
arm: 0.4 m: net brake load: 20ON; fuel consumption: 2 g/s; calorific value: 42 MJ/ kg: area of Indicator
diagram: 300 ; pressure scale: 80 kPa/mm; bore stroke: 100 100 mm, base length of diagram:
60mm. Calculate the: i)B.P., ii) I.P., iii) and iv)

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Q.8 (a) With the aid of a diagram, describe the working principle of a 2-stroke diesel engine.

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