SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

 General form of Measurement System

• Sensor: Device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by
an observer or by an instrument.

• Example: Mercury thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction
of a liquid mercury.

• Transducer: Device usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical etc. which converts one type
of energy into another form of energy.

• Example: LVDT, Strain gauge etc.

 Primary Transducer vs Secondary Transducer
Primary Transducer : Non-electrical signal is directly sensed by the transducer and converted into suitable signal for
measurement

• Example: Bourdon tube, thermistor

Secondary Transducer: The O/P of primary transducers applied to the next transducer for converting into electrical
signal

• Example: LVDT
 Active Transducer vs Passive Transducer

• Active Transducers: Self generating electrical energy, does not require external source.
 Thermocouple

 Photovoltaic Cell

 Piezoelectric Transducer

• Passive Transducer : Requires an external power source for their operation.

 Resistive Transducer: Strain Gauge, Thermistor.

 Inductive Transducer: Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
  Transducers and Inverse Transducers

 Transducer: a device which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity

 Inverse transducer: is the opposite of the transducer which converts an electrical quantity into a non-
electrical quantity.

• When a voltage is applied across the surface of piezoelectric crystal, its dimensions change that
cause mechanical displacement. Therefore, this crystal is an inverse transducer.

• Loudspeaker
• Electrical transducers: Transducer which coverts one form of energy into electrical energy.

 Based on Electrical Phenomenon

• Resistive transducer

• Capacitive transducer

• Inductive transducer

• Photoelectric transducer

• Photovoltaic transducer
 Strain Gauge
• Strain gauge is a thin, wafer-like device used for measuring the applied strain.

• It is basically a passive transducer which converts mechanical displacement into change of resistance.

• When a material to which gauge is attached undergoes compression or tension, the resistance of metal foil
or wire is changed. This property of resistance change is known as piezoresistive effect.

• A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure this resistance change which is proportional to the applied strain.
• The characteristic that defines the sensitivity of a strain gauge is known as Gauge Factor

• ΔR is change in gauge resistance,

• R is the nominal gauge resistance,
• Δ 𝑙 is change in specimen length,
• 𝑙 is normal specimen length in unstressed condition.
Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge
• Strain gauge has preloaded resistance wires connected in a Wheatstone bridge

1. Quarter Bridge
2. Half Bridge

• No of activated arms: 2
• Indicated output is also Doubled
2. Full Bridge

• No of activated arms: 4
• Indicated output is also FOUR TIMES
 Types of Wire Strain Gauge

Bonded Strain Gauge

Unbonded Metal Strain Gauge
 Thermistor
 Thermistors, also known as thermal resistors, are semiconductor devices acting as resistors having
negative coefficient of temperature.

 They are manufactured by various mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, cobalt, copper,
uranium, iron, and nickel.

𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟎 𝐞𝐱𝐩[𝜷( − )]
𝑻 𝑻𝒐

𝑹𝟎 is the resistances of the thermistor at absolute reference

temperatures 𝑇0 and 𝑹𝑻 is the resistances of the thermistor at
measured temperatures T and β is the material-dependent
constant.
 Measurement of temperature through thermistor
Advantages and disadvantages

 Some of the advantages of thermistors are as follows.

• They have high sensitivity which makes them suitable for precision temperature control,
measurement, and compensation.

• They have wide applications in lower range of temperatures (– 100°C to 300°C).

• They are less expensive and smaller in size.

 Some of the disadvantages of thermistor are as follows.

• The resistance vs temperature curve is not linear

• Thermistors are not suitable for wide temperature ranges.

 Thermocouple
 A thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar conductors welded or fused together at one end to form the
hot or measuring junction with other end available for connection to the cold or reference junction.

 A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy.

 The thermocouple is used as a primary transducer for measurement of temperature converting

temperature changes directly into EMF.
• Seebeck Effect: Two wires of different metals A and B are joined
together to form two junctions and if the two junctions are at
different temperatures, an electric current will flow around the
circuit. This is the Seebeck effect.

• Peltier Effect: This is the reverse phenomenon of Seeback

effect, if an external source of EMF is connected and a current
is forced to flow through the junctions. There will be significant
amount of temperature difference between two junctions. This
effect is known as Peltier effect.
 Types of Thermocouple
 Measurement of temperature through thermocouple
With Cold Junction Compensation
 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

• This equation forms the basis of capacitive transducers and any of the above mentioned
parameter can be changed to change the capacitance.

• Physical variables like force, displacement, and pressure may induce these changes.
1. Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive Transducers

Sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship between capacitive and displacement
2. Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive Transducers

Sensitivity is Not constant and therefore there is Non-linear relationship between capacitive and displacement
3. Changing Dielectric Constant Type of Capacitive Transducers
Capacitive Pressure Transducers
 VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCER
 Works based on change in the magnetic characteristic of an electrical circuit in response to a measurand
quantity which may be displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.

1. Self-generating type: Voltage is generated because of the relative motion between a iron core or
ferromagnetic material and a magnetic field.
- Electromagnetic type
- Electro-dynamic type

2. Passive type: Motion of an object results in the change of inductance of the coils of the transducer.

- Change in self inductance

- Change in Mutual inductance
- Differential Output (Linear variable differential transducer (LVDT))
 Electromagnetic Type Transducer

 Consists of: i) permanent magnet core with wounded coil

ii) Ferromagnetic material

 Magnetic flux of permanent magnet is linked to moving iron core. When there is core movement, the
magnetic flux also changes and thus it produces EMF in coil which can be measured.
 Electrodynamic Type Transducer

 The coil moves in the field of permanent magnet

 The turns of the coils are perpendicular to the intersecting line of force.

 When the coil moves it induces the voltage which is proportional to the velocity of the coil.
 Change in Self Inductance (Variable Reluctance Transducer)

 Reluctance of magnetic circuit is changed by some mechanical input.

 Change in inductance is proportional to the change of reluctance means change of mechanical input.

 Quantities like pressure, force, displacement, acceleration etc. can be measured by variable reluctance
transducer.

𝑁2
Self inductance of a coil: 𝐿 = 𝑅
𝑁= Number of turn
𝑅= Reluctance of the magnetic circuit

𝑙
𝑅=
𝜇𝐴

𝐴= area of the cross section

𝑙=length of the magnetic circuit
 Mutual Inductance Transducer

 It consists of an energizing coil X and pick up coil Y.

 A change in position of armature leads inputs changes in the air gap which results in changes in output coil
Y

 Displacement can be measured with this method.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Linear variable differential transformer, (LVDT) is the most
widely used Inductive transducer for converting linear motion
(displacement) into electrical signals.

 It basically consists of one primary and two secondary

windings along with an iron core which can be adjusted.

 The secondary windings S1 and S2 are connected symmetrically

on either side of the primary winding P

 The secondary windings, having equal number of turns, are

connected in series.

 The primary winding is supplied with an alternating voltage

source amplitude 3 to 15 Volt and frequency 50 to 20000 Hz
 The differential output voltage is given by
• The amount of core displaced and its direction can be determined by the amplitude and phase of output
voltage.

• The response of LVDT is linear. However, it becomes non-linear for very large displacements at which it
is not useful.
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
• When a mechanical stress is applied to some asymmetrical crystalline material such as quartz, barium
titanite, and Rochelle salt, a voltage is generated at their surfaces.

• This voltage is in proportion to the applied stress and becomes zero when the stress is removed. This
effect is known as piezoelectric effect.

• The piezoelectric effect is reversible in nature, that is the dimensions of the crystal will change if an
alternating voltage is applied to it.

• The polarity of induced charge depends upon the direction of applied force. The charge is given by
where P is the pressure applied and is equal to F/A, and g the voltage sensitivity
Advantages and disadvantages:

Some of the advantages of a piezoelectric transducer are as follows.

• It does not require any external power source, that is, it is self generating.
• It is small in size and very rugged.
• Quartz crystal can be used over a wide range of temperatures.

Some of the disadvantages of a piezoelectric transducer are as follows.

• The output voltage of piezoelectric transducer varies with crystal temperature.

• It cannot be used for measurement of static conditions.
• Synthetic transducers cannot be used for stabilizing the frequency of oscillators.