Unit-III (B-Part) Electrical Measurement & Measuring Instruments EEE-101/ EEE-201

Syllabus:- Types of instruments, construction and working of PMMC and Moving Iron type instruments,
single phase Dynamometer type Wattmeter and Induction type Energy meter, use of shunts and multipliers (simple numerical problems on energy meter, shunts and multipliers).

Measurement:- The measurement of a given quantity is an act or the of comparison between the quantity whose magnitude is unknown and a predefined standard. Since two quantities are compared the result is expressed in the form of numerical values. There are two methods of measurement (i) Direct method (ii) Indirect method. Direct Measurement:- In direct method the unknown quantity is measured directly such as measurement of current by an ammeter, voltage by voltmeter, resistance by ohm meter, power by wattmeter etc. Indirect Measurement:- In the indirect method of measurement the unknown quantity is determined by measuring other functionally related quantities and calculating the desired quantity rather than measuring it directly with an instrument. For example resistance of a conductor may be determined by measuring voltage across the conductor V, and current flowing through the conductor I, and then calculating it by R = V

Basic classification of measuring instruments: 1- Mechanical instruments:- They are very reliable for static and stable conditions. The disadvantage is they are unable to respond rapidly to measurement of dynamic and transient conditions. 2- Electrical instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. The electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating device. 3- Electronic instruments:- These instruments have very fast response. For example a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable to follow dynamic and transient changes of the order of few nano seconds (10-9 sec). Other classification of instruments:1- Absolute instruments or Primary Instruments:- These instruments gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in terms of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These instruments do not require comparison with any other standard instrument 2- Secondary instruments:-These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be determined by the output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument, which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument. Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every time a measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of quantity under measurement. Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly used.

Classification Of Instruments
Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Indicating Instruments:- Indicating instruments are those which indicates the magnitude
of an electrical quantity under measurement. A pointer moving over a graduated dial gives the indications. Ordinary ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, frequency meter, power factor meter etc. falls in this class.

Recording Instruments:- These instruments keeps a continuous record of variations of

electrical quantity under measurement over a definite period of time. Such instruments carry a marker on the pointer, which touches the paper. The paper is wrapped on a drum and moves with uniform slow speed. Thus a curve is traced on the paper, which shows the variation in magnitude with time. Recoding type voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter etc. falls in this class. Integrating Instruments:- These instruments measure total amount of quantity or energy supplied over a period of time. The ampere hour meter and energy meter falls into this category.

Essentials of Measuring Instruments

Indicating instruments posses three essential features* A device for deflection of pointer over the scale (called Deflecting Device) * A device for controlling the movement of pointer (Control Device) * A device to ensure that the pointer comes to rest quickly with minimum oscillations at its correct reading position (Damping Device). Deflecting Device (To produce deflecting torque):- The device used for deflecting the pointer over the scale is called the deflecting device. The torque needed to obtain the deflection is known as deflecting torque or operating torque. The production of deflecting torque is depend upon the quantity to measured and the type of instrument. Control Device (To provide control):- It controls the movement of pointer over the scale. It ensures that: (a) The pointer comes to its correct position on the application of the deflecting torque. (b) The pointer returns to the zero position when the deflecting torque is removed. Control torque opposes the deflecting torque. To obtain a stable position of the pointer, the control torque must be equal to the deflecting torque. The control torque is obtained by either two spirally wound springs or a twisted suspension wire. (i) Spring Control:- Spring of non magnetic alloy such as Phosphor Bronze having low specific resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance. Two springs S1 and S2 are wound in opposite direction on spindle S of moving system. The control torque is produced due to the combined tension of the two springs. Since the torsional torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, the control torque is directly proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer. Tc Where Tc is control torque and is angular deflection of pointer.

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Tc = Ks Where Ks is spring constant in Nm/unit deflection. The value of Ks depends upon material used and geometry of the spring. (ii) Gravity Control:- In this type of control, a small weight is placed on an arm attached to the moving system. The position of this weight is adjustable. This weight produces a controlling torque due to gravity. Damping Device:- Damping is the prevention of the oscillations of the pointer to reduce its settling time. The torque applied to damped out the oscillations is called Damping Torque The damping torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the moving system, and thus it acts only when the system is in motion. The methods commonly used for damping are: (i) Eddy current damping (ii) Air damping or air friction damping (iii) Fluid damping or fluid friction damping. (i) Eddy Current Damping:- As shown in figure disc D is attached to the instrument spindle S. The disc is arranged to move in a magnetic field of a permanent magnet PM. This will induce a voltage which causing eddy current to flow in the disc. The eddy current produces a flux, which interacts with the magnetic field to exert a force on disc. By Lenz law this force opposes the movement of disc, thus damping effect is obtained. (ii) Air Damping:- As shown in figure a thin metal vane V is attached to the instrument spindle S. The vane moves in a metal box B. The clearance between the vane and box is kept very small. The lid L of the box is shown removed. As the pointer moves, the air on one side of vane is compressed while on the other side it is expanded. The pressure on the compressed side is more than that on the other side. This opposes the motion of the vane and slows down its movement. (iii) Fluid Damping:- To obtain large damping force the vane is constrained to move in a container filled with a fluid of suitable viscosity.

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments

Working Principle:- Refer to fig. (a) and (b), A torque is exerted on a current carrying coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil C has a number of turns of thin insulated wire wound on a rectangular Aluminium former F. The former is carried on a spindle S mounted in jewel bearings J1 and J2. Pointer PR is attached to the spindle to move on the scale. The coil serves two purposes (a) It intensify the magnetic field by reducing the length of air gap (b) It makes the field radial and uniform in the air gap. Thus the coil always moves at right angles to the magnetic field. Soft iron pieces PP are attached to the permanent magnet PM to adjust the length of air gap. A soft iron yoke Y is used to complete the flux path and to provide shielding from stray external field. Deflecting Torque:Force on one side of coil is given by F = Bi ln Torque on one side of coil is
T1
=F b b = BilN 2 2

Where B= Flux density in air gap (Tesla) i= Current in coil (Amp) l = Effective axial length of the coil Total deflection torque exerted on coil
Td = 2T1 = 2 B ilN b =B ilN 2
Td = 1i K

B,l,b,N are constant

Control Torque: The control torque of spring is proportional to the deflection angle . Tc=Ks Tc = Control torque, Ks= Spring constant The pointer will settle in a position where Tc= Td Ks = K1i K = 1 i = Ki Ks Thus the scale of PMMC instruments are linear or Uniform.
i

Advantages:Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

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Sensitivity is very high Very accurate and reliable Uniform scale up to 2700 or more Very effective damping Low power consumption Easily converted into multi range instrument Free from Hysterisis error and not affected by external magnetic field because its permanent magnet shield the coil from external magnetic field.

Disadvantages:1- It can operate only on direct current because. If the current reverses, deflection also reverses. So for AC supply the deflection alternates and remains at zero position. 2- The moving system is very delicate and can easily be damaged by rough handling. 3- Very fine wire is used in coil so cannot withstand overloading. 4- PMMC instruments are costlier than moving iron instruments. Applications: DC Ammeter DC voltmeter Multimeter Flux meter DC Galvanometer Ballastic Galvanometer

Moving Iron Type Instrument

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Moving iron instruments are of two types (a) Attraction type and (b) Repulsion type. General Torque Equation:- When the small current is supplied to instrument there will be a small deflection d and some mechanical work will be done. Let Td be the deflecting torque The change in energy of the magnetic field, dE = The work done during the movement of iron dW = Td d Since change in energy, dE =work done , dw
Td = 1 2 dL I 2 d
1 2 I dL 2

Where I is in Ampere, L in hennery and in radians. Deflection Td is balanced by the controlling torque Tc = K , where K= control spring constant in Nm/rad, = deflection in radians At equilibrium Tc = Td Or K =
1 2 dL I 2 d
1 I 2 dL 2 K d

Deflection

or

2 Scale is not uniform. I

Attraction Type Moving Iron Instruments:The construction of attraction type moving iron instrument is shown in fig. The moving iron is a eccentrically mounted soft iron piece. When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and moving iron moves from the weaker field (out side the coil) to stronger field (inside the coil. In other words, the coil attracts moving iron. The controlling torque is provided by the springs. The gravity control can be used for panel type instruments, which are vertically mounted. Generally air friction damping is provided in these type of instruments. Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments:In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil, one is fixed and other is movable. These vanes are magnetized when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane. Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra 6 Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

There are two different designs in common use: (a) Radial Vane Type:- In this type the are the radial strip of iron. The strips are placed within the coil as shown in fig. (a). The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable vane is attached to the spindle of the instrument. (b) Co-axial Vane Type:- In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sectioned as co-axial cylinder. Advantages (Merits) of moving iron instruments:1- These instruments can be used for both AC and DC 2- Robust in construction and relatively cheap 3- Can withstand overload momentarily 4- The stationary parts are simple. 5- Due to simple construction its cost is low. 6- Good accuracy. Disadvantages (Demerits):1- Non uniform scale 2- Affected by stray magnetic field 3- It consumes large amount of power due to I2R loss 4- There is magnetic losses in the vanes, so these instruments are not very sensitive Applications:- Voltmeter, Ammeter, Power factor meter. They are suitable for measurement of low frequency high power circuits. *Note: The operating magnetic field of M.I. instruments is very weak therefore eddy current damping is not
used. The permanent magnet, which is required for eddy current damping, would destroy the operating magnetic field.

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter

It consists of two fixed coils CC placed in series with each other. These coils produce uniform magnetic field. The current in current coil is proportional to the load current. The

moving coil Pc is connected with a high non-inductive resistance Rs in series. The current flowing in the moving coil is proportional to the supply voltage. Springs are used to provide controlling torque. Measurement of DC Power If = Current in fixed coil Im = Current in moving coil I = Load current V = Load current Tin = Instantaneous value of deflecting torque P = Power Tin i f i m i m V and i f i But in i P T V For measurement of AC power:Instantaneous power P =V i Assuming that voltage and current waves are sinusoidal
V = Vm sin t

i = I m sin ( )

Where is the phase by which current lags or leads the

voltage

Instantaneous Power, P = Vi = Vm I m sin t sin (t )

Average power over a cycle

1 Vm I m Sin t Sin (t ) T 0 Average Power, P =VI cos Watt
T

Average Power, P =

Here T = 2

Single Phase Energy Meter (Induction Type)

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Energy meter is an instrument that measures the electrical energy consumed. It is also known as Watt- Hour or Kilo Watt Hour meter. Construction:- Single phase induction type energy meter consists of following parts(a) Driving system (b) Moving system (c) Braking system (d) Registering system (a) Driving System:- It consists two silicon steel laminated electromagnets M1 (series magnet) and M2 (shunt magnet). M1 has few turns of thick wire, and is connected in series with load and it work as Current Coil. M2 is used as pressure coil or voltage coil and it carry current proportional to supply voltage. FC1 and FC2 are copper shading bands. By adjustment of shading bands the shunt magnet flux can be adjusted to lag behind the supply voltage by exactly 900. (b) Moving System:- It consists of thin Aluminum disc on a spindle. The disc is placed between the series and shunt magnet air gap so that it cuts the fluxes of both the magnets. A deflecting torque is produced by the flux of each magnet with the eddy current induced in the disc by the flux of other magnet. (c) Braking System:- It consists of a permanent magnet known as braking magnet. It placed near the edge of alumi9nium disc. When the disc rotates in the field of braking magnet, eddy currents are induced. The flux produced by the eddy current opposes the main flux, so it will produce braking torque. The braking torque is proportional to the speed of disc. (d) Registering System:- The disc spindle is connected through a set of gears to a counting mechanism. This mechanism records number, which is proportional to the number of revolutions of disc. It indicates the energy consumed directly in KWh. Meter Constant: The number of revolutions is proportional to electrical energy h Therefore, total No. of revolutions = K *Energy in KW Where K is meter constant.
K = No . of revolution s KWh

hence the meter constant is defined as the number of revolutions made by the disc for an energy consumption of 1 KWh by the load. If the meter constant of an energy meter is 1200 rev/KWh, it means that for an energy consumption of 1 KWh by the load, the disc will make 1200 revolutions.

Extension of Range
Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Shunts are used for the extension of range of Ammeters. So a good shunt should have the following properties:1- The temperature coefficient of shunt should be low 2- Resistance of shunt should not vary with time 3- They should carry current without excessive temperature rise 4- They should have thermal electromotive force with copper * Manganin is used for DC shunt and Constantan as AC shunt. Ammeter:- PMMC is used as indicating device. The current capacity of PMMC is small. It is impractical to construct a PMMC coil, which can carry a current greater than 100 mA. Therefore a shunt is required for measurement of large currents. Rm = Internal resistance of movement (coil) in Rsh = Resistance of shunt in Im = Ifs = Full scale deflection current of movement in Amperes Ish = Shunt current in Amperes I = Current to be measured in Amperes Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop across shunt and movement must be same.
I sh Rsh = I m Rm

Rsh =

I m Rm

I sh I m Rm (I Im )

I sh = I I m

We can write Rsh =

R I 1 = m Im Rsh R I =1+ m Im R sh
I =m Im

is known as multiplying power of shunt

Resistance of shunt Rsh = Or

Rm

( m 1)

Rsh =

Rm

I 1 I m

Multi Range Ammeter:- Let m1, m2, m3, m4 be the shunt multiplying powers for current I1, I2, I3, I4.

Rsh1 =

Rm

( m1 1) ( m2 1)
10

Rsh2 = Rm

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

Rsh3 = Rm
Rsh4 =
Voltmeter:-

( m3 1) ( m4 1)

Rm

For measurement of voltage a series resistor or a multiplier is required for extension of range. Im = Deflection current of movement Rm = Internal resistance of movement Rs = Multiplier resistance V = Full range voltage of instrument V = I m ( Rs + Rm ) V I m Rm V Rs = = Rm Im Im * For more than 500 V multiplier is mounted outside the case. Multi Range Voltmeter: V Rs1 = 1 Rm Im V R s 2 = 2 Rm Im V R s 3 = 3 Rm Im V Rs 4 = 4 Rm Im

* For average value divide the reading by 1.11. For peak value multiply the voltage by 1.414. To get peak-topeak ratio multiply the reading by 2.828. ** Thermocouple and hot wire instruments are used for measurement of true power and rms value of voltage & current.

Voltmeter & Ammeter by Moving Coil Instrument:- Same process as applied in PMMC. Electrodynamic type Voltmeter & Ammeter:- Shunt is connected across the circuit for ammeter and multiplier resistance is connected in series for voltmeter.

Numericals of Unit 3 (B-Part)

Extension of Range
Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

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Example 1:- A moving coil ammeter has a full scale deflection of 50 Amp and a coil resistance of 1000 . What will be the value of the shunt resistance required for the instrument to be converted to read a full scale reading of 1 Amp.
6 Solution 1:- Full scale deflection current I m = 50 * 10 A Instrument resistance Rm =1000 Total current to be measured I =1 A Rm 1000 Rsh = = I 1 Resistance of ammeter shunt required 1 1 Im 50 * 10 6

Example 2:- The full scale deflection current of an ammeter is 1 mA and its internal resistance is 100 . If this meter is to have scale deflection at 5 A, what is the value of shunt resistance to be used. Solution 2:- Full scale deflection current I m = 1 mA = 0.001 A Rm =100 . Instrument resistance I =5 A Total current to be measured Rm 100 Rsh = = I 5 Resistance of ammeter shunt required 1 1 Im 0.01
Rsh = 0.020004

Example 3:- The full scale deflection current of a meter is 1 mA and its internal resistance is 100 . If this meter is to have full-scale deflection when 100 V is measured. What should be the value of series resistance? Solution 3:- Instrument resistance Rm =100 3 Full-scale deflection current I m = 1 mA = 1 * 10 A V =100 V Voltage to be measured Required series resistance Rse =
V 100 Rm = 100 = 99 ,900 Im 1 * 10 3

Example 4:- A PMMC instrument gives full scale reading of 25 mA when a potential difference across its terminals is 75 mV. Show how it can be used (a) as an ammeter for the range of 0-100 A (b) as a voltmeter for the range of 0-750 V. Also find the multiplying factor of shunt and voltage amplification. Solution 4:Instrument resistance Rm =
Potential drop across ter min als 75 * 10 3 = = 3 Instrument current 25 * 10 3

(a) Current to be measured I =100 A Multiplying power of shunt m =

I 100 = = 4000 I m 25 * 10 3

Shunt resistance required for full scale deflection at 100 A

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

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Rm 3 3 = = = 7.50 *10 4 = 0.75 m m 1 4000 1 3999 (b) Voltage to be measured V = 750 V Rsh =
Rse = V 750 Rm = 3 = 29 ,997 Im 25 * 10 3

Voltage amplification =

750 = 10000 Ans. 75 * 10 3

Example 5:- A moving coil instrument gives full scale deflection of 10 mA and potential difference across its terminals is 100 mV. Calculate (a) shunt resistance for full-scale deflection corresponding to 200 A (b) Series resistance for full reading corresponding to 1000 V. Solution 5:Instrument resistance Rm =
Potential drop across ter min als 100 * 10 3 = = 10 Instrument current 10 * 10 3

(a) Shunt resistance required for full scale deflection corresponding to 200 A Rm 10 Rsh = = = 5.00025 *10 4 I 200 1 1 Im 10 * 10 3 (b) Series resistance required for full scale deflection corresponding to 1000 V
Rse = V 1000 Rm = 10 = 99 ,990 Im 10 * 10 3

Example 6:- A moving coil instrument having internal resistance of 50 indicates full scale deflection with a current of 10 mA. How can it be made to work as (i) a voltmeter to read 100 V on full scale (ii) an ammeter of 1 A, on full scale? [UPTU 2001] Solution 6:- Resistance of the instrument coil Rm = 50 Current flowing through the instrument for full-scale deflection I m = 10 mA = 0.01 A (i) Series resistance required to measure 100 V
Rse = V 100 Rm = 50 = 9950 Im 0.01

(ii) Shunt required to measure 1 A current Rm 50 Rsh = = = 0.50505 I 1 1 1 Im 0.01 Example 7:- A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 2 and it reads upto 250 V when a resistance of 5000 is connected in series with it. Find the current range of the instrument when it is used as ammeter with the coil connected across a shunt resistance of 2 milli . [UPTU 2002]
Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

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Solution 7:- Resistance of the instrument coil Rm = 2 Current flowing through the instrument for full-scale deflection
Full scale reading Rm + Series resis tan ce 250 = = 0.04998 A = 49 .98 mA 2 + 5000 3 Shunt resistance Rsh = 2 * 10 Im =

Current through shunt resistance I sh =

I m Rm 49 .98 *10 3 * 2 = = 49 .98 A Rs 2 * 10 3

Current range of instrument = Full scale deflection current

= I m + I = 0.04998 + 49 .98 = 50 A

Example 8:- A moving coil ammeter gives full scale deflection with 15 mA and has a resistance of 5 . Calculate the resistance to be calculated in (a) Parallel to enable the instrument to read upto 1 A (b) Series to enable it to read up to 10 V. [UPTU 2002] Solution 8:- Instrument resistance Rm = 5 Full scale deflection current I m = 15 mA = 15 *10 3 A (a) Current to be measured I =1 A Shunt resistance to be connected in parallel Rm 5 Rsh = = = 0.07614 I 1 1 1 Im 15 * 10 3 (b) Voltage to be measured V = 10 V Series resistance required
Rse = V 10 Rm = 5 = 661 .6667 Im 15 * 10 3

ENERGY METER Example 9:- A correctly adjusted single phase 230 V induction watt hour meter has a meter constant of 800 rev/KWh. Determine the speed of disc for a 5 A at a lagging power factor of 0.9. Solution 9:- Supply voltage V = 230 V Load current I = 5 A Power factor Cos = 0.9 VI Cos * Time 230 * 5 * 0.9 1 = * = 0.01725 KWh Energy supplied per minute =
1000 1000 60

Speed of disc = Energy supplied per minute * meter constant in rev/KWh

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

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= 0.01725* 800 = 13.8 rev

Min

Example 10:- A single phase energy meter has a registration constant of 100 rev/KWh. If the meter is connected to a load carrying 20 A at 230 V and 0.8 power factor for an hour, find the number of revolutions made by it. If it actually makes 360 revolutions, find the percentage error. [UPTU 2002] Solution 10:- Energy consumed in one hour VI Cos 230 * 20 * 0.8
= 1000 = 1000

= 3.68 KWh

Number of revolution the meter should make if it is correct = 3.68* Registration constant in rev/KWh = 3.68*100 = 368 Number of revolutions actually made = 360 Percentage error =
368 360 * 100 = 2.174 % ( Slow ) 368

Example 11:- A single phase energy meter has a constant of 1200 rev/KWh. When a load of 200 W is connected, the disc rotates at 4.2 rev/minute. If the load is on for 10 hours, how many units are recorded as an error? Also find percentage error. Solution 11:- Actual energy consumed in 10 Hr = Load in KW* Time in hours
= 200 *10 = 2 KWh 1000

Revolutions made by disc in 10 hours = Speed of disc in rpm * time in minutes = 4.2 * 10 * 60 = 2520 Energy consumption recorded by meter =
= 2520 = 2.1 KWh 1200
Re volutions made by disc M eter cons tan t

Recording error = Energy recorded by meter actual energy consumption

2.1 2 * 100 = 5 % Percentage error = 2
= 2.1 2 = 0.1 KWh

( Excess )

Example 12:- A single phase energy meter has a meter constant of 1300 rev/KWh. The disc revolves at 3.5 rpm when a load of 150 W is connected to it. If load is on for 11 hours, how many units are recorded as error? What is percentage error? [UPTU 2001] Solution 12:- Actual energy consumed in 11 hours = Load in KW * Time in hours
= 150 * 11 = 1.65 KWh 100

Revolution made by disc in 11 hours = Speed of disc in rpm * time in minutes

= 3.5 * 11 * 60 = 2310

Energy consumption recorded by meter

= 2310 = 1.777 KWh 1300

Re volutions m ade by disc M eter cons tan t

Recording error = Energy recorded by meter actual energy consumption

= 1.777 1.65 = 0.127 KWh

( Excess )

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

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Percentage error =

1.777 1.65 * 100 = 7.69 % 1.65

Example 13:- An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of disc for one unit of energy. Calculate the number of revolutions made by it when connected to load carrying 40 A at 230 V and 0.4 power factor for an hour. If it actually makes 360 revolutions, find the percentage error. Solution 13:- Energy actually consumed
= VI Cos * t * 10 3 = 230 * 40 * 0.4 * 1 * 10 3 = 3.68 KW h

The meter makes 100 revolutions for one unit i.e. one KWh energy consumed. Number of revolutions made = 3.68 * 100 = 368 In case the meter makes 360 revolutions Error =
360 368 * 100 = 2.17 % or 2.17 % ( Low ) 368

Javed Ahmed & Abhishek Mishra Associate Prof. Axis Instt., Kanpur

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