Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555

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Construction and Building Materials

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Effect of temperature and air void on mixed mode fracture toughness

of modified asphalt mixtures
M.R.M. Aliha a,⇑, H. Fazaeli b, S. Aghajani b, F. Moghadas Nejad c
a
Welding and Joining Research Center, School of Industrial Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Narmak, 16846-13114, Tehran, Iran
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Narmak, 16846-13114, Tehran, Iran
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

h i g h l i g h t s

 Mixed mode fracture toughness of different modified asphalt mixtures was determined.
 Effects of temperature changes and air-void were studied on fracture toughness values.
 The mixtures modified with CR and SBS additives had the most KIc and KIIc values.
 Critical mode of fracture was not noticeably sensitive to the type of modifier.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The use of modified asphalt mixtures is a suitable solution for preventing low temperature cracking of
Received 14 January 2015 pavements in cold regions. In this paper, mixed mode I/II fracture toughness of five modified asphalt mix-
Received in revised form 14 July 2015 tures containing poly phosphoric acid (PPA), Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS), anti-stripping agent, crumb
Accepted 16 July 2015
rubber (CR) and F-T paraffin wax (Sasobit) and an unmodified one (with no additive) is investigated
experimentally using a large number of cracked semi-circular bend (SCB) specimens. The effects of four
different mode mixities from pure mode I to pure mode II, temperature changes, and air void percentage
Keywords:
are also studied on fracture toughness values of modified asphalt mixtures. The obtained result showed
Modified asphalt mixtures
Mixed mode I/II loading
that the fracture toughness of tested mixtures depends noticeably on the modifier type, air void content
Fracture toughness and the test temperature. It is shown that the performance grade (PG) of the tested binders has significant
Temperature effect effect on the low temperature fracture resistance of the investigated modified asphalt mixtures. Also,
Air void effect according to the test results, mixed mode loading cases were more critical than the pure modes I and
Critical fracture mode II situations.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (LEFM) is a suitable discipline for evaluating the fracture toughness

Visco-elastic behavior of bitumen may lead to different perfor-
mances for asphalt mixtures as the temperature is changed. At
higher temperatures, the bitumen behaves as viscous material
and failure mode such as rutting, is more pronounced to occur at
these conditions. Conversely, at low temperatures, brittle fracture
is the major failure mode of asphalt pavements due to the elastic
and brittle nature of the binder. Because of the huge amount of
costs that are spent annually for the maintenance and rehabilita-
tion of cracked roads and pavements, it is necessary to study the
affecting parameters on cracking behavior of asphalt mixtures at
low temperatures. The use of linear elastic fracture mechanics
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mrm_aliha@iust.ac.ir (M.R.M. Aliha).
of asphalt pavements based on the crack tip stress field [1–7]. In
this framework, the stress intensity factor (SIF) is known as the
main parameter for describing the crack growth resistance.
Since 1970, a large number of research works have been per-
formed to study the fracture resistance of different asphalt mix-
tures using the concept of fracture energy or the stress intensity
factor by employing numerical analyses, simulation techniques
and experimental methods [1–18]. The influence of asphalt charac-
teristic specifications including the binder type, aggregate type,
size of aggregates, air void contents, temperature, and loading con-
dition have been investigated in the past for different asphalt mix-
tures. Most of the previous research studies have focused on mode
I fracture, but in practice a real crack initiated in an overlay can be
subjected to mixed mode tensile–shear deformations [2,3,19,20].
However, the fracture behavior of modified asphalt mixtures under

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.165
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
546 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555
mixed mode tensile–shear deformations has been rarely investi-
gated in the past. The use of modifiers is one of the important tech-
niques for improving the performance of asphalt mixtures at high
and low temperatures. Lee and Marasteanu [16] showed that the
Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS) modifier can increase the fracture
resistance of asphalt mixtures. Using semi-circular bend specimen,
Liu [21] studied the fracture energy of three asphalt mixtures (one
unmodified and two modified mixtures with crumb rubber (CR)
and showed that the modification of the binder can increase the
fracture energy of asphalt mixtures and provides better perfor-
mance for the hot mix asphalt mixture. Zegeye and co-workers
[22] studied the fracture resistance of modified asphalt mixtures
at low temperatures using indirect tensile test (IDT), three-point
semi-circular bend test and disc shape compact tension (DCT) test.
They used different modifiers such as SBS, Polyphosphoric Acid
(PPA), SBS + PPA, and PPA + Elvaloy in their experimental program
and showed that the SBS provides the best performance for asphalt
mixtures at low temperatures. Recently, Pirmohammad and
Ayatollahi [23] have reported a positive influence of using the
SBS modifier on mixed mode fracture toughness of asphalt
mixtures. However, as mentioned earlier, most of the previous
research works have only focused on mode I fracture behavior of
modified asphalt mixtures. But recent papers published by the
authors and coworkers [2,3,19,20,23] have demonstrated the
importance of mode II component in fracture process of asphalt
pavements in addition to the mode I loading as well. On the other
hand, due to different effects of modifiers on visco-elastic behavior
of bitumen, investigating the performance of modified asphalt
mixtures against cracking and comparing them in similar
manufacturing and testing conditions is an important issue for
understanding the advantages/disadvantages of each modifier.
Hence, the aim of this research is to investigate the effects of
adding some commonly used modifiers in the composition of
asphalt mixtures on pure mode I, pure mode II and mixed mode
I/II fracture toughness of asphalt mixtures. Moreover, the influence
of change in the air void content and the test temperature is also
investigated on the fracture behavior of modified asphalt mixtures.
Modifiers such as SBS, PPA, crumb rubber (CR), Sasobit and
anti-stripping agent are some of the most frequently used materi-
als for modifying the hot and warm mix asphalt mixtures which
was used for the asphalt mixture preparation in this paper.
SBS copolymers with a combination of blocks with thermoplas-
tics characteristics (Polystyrene terminal blocks) and blocks with
rubber properties (poly-Butadiene middle blocks), have elastic
and thermoplastic characteristics simultaneously. Butadiene
elastomers have the glass transition temperature of 75 °C while,
the glass transition temperature of Styrene division is 100 °C.
Hence, SBS has both thermoplastic and elastomeric properties.
This will improve the performance of SBS modified asphalts
against permanent deformation, as well as, rutting at high temper-
atures, and thermal cracks at low temperatures [24–27]. According
to several studies, the proper consumption rate of the additive in
the asphalt mixture of roads has been proposed to be 5–6 weight
percentage of binder [24–27].
PPA breaks the asphaltene agglomerates and creates the
possibility for better distribution of asphaltene in the molten phase
[28,29]. PPA is a mineral polymer in liquid form which is used in
order to improve the rheological properties of the bitumen and
the asphalt mixtures. Previous researches show that PPA can be
used to improve the lower and upper limits of performance grade
(PG) of bitumen. Thus, it will improve the performance of the
asphalt mixture against cracking at low temperatures and against
rutting under high temperature conditions. However, this influ-
ence significantly depends on the structure of the base bitumen
and the used aggregates [28–31]. PPA consumption rate varies
between 0.5 and 1 wt.% of bitumen [28–31].
CR has been known as one of the oldest additives used in the
composition of modified asphalt mixtures. This can improve the
performance of bitumen depending on the type of CR. Increasing
the resistance against rutting, reducing thermal sensitivity,
improving the performance grade of bitumen, and enhancing the
fatigue and thermal cracking resistance of asphalt are the main
advantages of using this additive [32–35]. However, operational
issues like difficult blending with bitumen, lack of adequate
stability in bitumen for long term, and a high density energy
requirement have limited the usage of this additive. Various stud-
ies show that application of CR (about 15–20 wt.% of bitumen) can
considerably improve the rheological performance of both asphalt
and bitumen [32–35].
Fischer-Tropsch paraffin wax (Sasobit) is an aliphatic hydrocar-
bon derived from coal gasification which is known as the most
widely used additives in producing warm mix asphalts. It can be
easily dissolved in bitumen due to its low melting point (about
100 °C) and can form a stable compound. After the compaction
process and cooling of the asphalt, it will form a crystalline
structure in bitumen and will enhance the strength and resistance
against deformation [36,37]. Reducing the viscosity, improving the
compaction and blending processes, increasing the upper limit of
PG, enhancing the performance of asphalt against the permanent
deformations, and decreasing the amount of bitumen aging are
the main characteristics of this additive [34,36–39]. However,
increasing the lower limit PG of bitumen can elevate the risk of
cracking at low temperatures. Researchers have suggested the
amount of 1–3 wt.% of bitumen for consumption of this additive
[36–39].
Stripping is one of the most major failure modes of asphalt mix-
tures in cold or rainy regions. Thus, the use of lime, Portland
cement, and anti-stripping agent is a possible solution for prevent-
ing this failure mode. Since lime and cement are brittle at low tem-
perature, the use of anti-stripping agent provides better
performance for the asphalt mixture. Moreover, reducing the bitu-
men viscosity and improving the mixing and compacting condition
of asphalt mixtures are some other advantages of the
anti-stripping agent modifier [40,41]. The optimum percentage of
anti-stripping agent has been reported in the range of 0.3–0.5%
weight of bitumen [41].
Since the performance of asphalt mixtures may be dependent
significantly on the temperature, in this research the fracture
resistance of different modified asphalt mixtures will be studied
experimentally at three subzero temperatures of 30, 22 and
15 °C. Also, the effect of air void content in the composition of
modified mixtures is investigated under different mode I/II
mixities. In the next section the experimental program of this
research is described and presented.
2. Materials and methods
Employing a suitable test specimen and method for conducting fracture tough-
ness experiments under different mode I/II mixities is a primary issue that should
be selected for asphalt mixtures. Hence, in the following, previously used samples
for fracture toughness determination of asphalt materials are introduced and then
the selected test configuration for the experimental study of this research is
described in more detail.
2.1. Fracture test specimen geometry
In the past decades, several test specimens have been used for determining the
fracture resistance of asphalt mixtures. The single edge notched bend beam (SENB)
subjected to three or four-point bend loading [1,12,15,42,43], the modified indirect
tension (IDT) specimen [11], the disc shape compact tension (DCT) specimen
[13,14,18,44], the center cracked diametral compression disc (Brazilian disc) spec-
imen [45] and the semi-circular bend (SCB) specimen subjected to three-point bend
loading [3,6,10,16,19,23,46–54] are some of the previously used test configurations
for investigating the crack growth behavior of asphalt mixtures. It should be noted
that many of the mentioned specimen, cannot provide pure or dominantly mode II
 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555 547

loading cases. However in recent years, the use of SCB specimen has been widely Table 1
increased by researchers who work on asphalt cracking due to simple geometry Geometry factors and the loading support parameters of the tested SCB specimens.
and loading condition of this specimen and also its ability to introduce the full
mode mixities ranging from pure mode I to pure mode II. The state of mode mixity Unit Pure mode I Mixed mode I/II Mixed mode I/II Pure mode II
can be changed in the SCB specimen in three different manners: (i) changing the (S1, S2) mm (50,50) (50,22) (50,15) (50,9)
loading support distance relative to the fixed crack location, (ii) changing the edge Me – 1 0.8 0.38 0
vertical crack location from the center of specimen, and (iii) changing the crack YI [3] – 3.734 1.766 0.802 0
inclination angle relative to the vertical direction [3]. YII [3] – 0 0.578 1.179 1.772
In this research, the SCB specimen (shown in Fig. 1) with the vertical edge crack
at the middle of the specimen and subjected to asymmetric three-point bending
was used for fracture toughness testing of asphalt mixtures. Convince of introduc-
ing a fixed crack at the middle of bottom edge and ease of changing the bottom
loading supports for controlling the modes I and II contributions, are some of the Table 2
advantages of the SCB configuration. The critical modes I and II stress intensity Physical properties of the base bitumen.
factors (KIf, KIIf) at the onset of fracture for this specimen can be determined from
Test Standard test Unit Test results
Eqs. (1) and (2) as [3,20,55]:
Specific gravity (25 °C) ASTM D70 g/cm3 1.03
P f pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Flash point (Cleveland) ASTM D92 °C 308
K If ¼ p aY I ða=R; S1=R; S2=RÞ ð1Þ
Penetration (25 °C) ASTM D5 °C 62
2R t
Ductility (25 °C) ASTM D113 cm 100
Softening point ASTM D36 °C 49
Pf pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
K IIf ¼ p aY II ða=R; S1=R; S2=RÞ; ð2Þ Kinematic viscosity @ 120 °C ASTM D2170 mm2/s 810
2R t
Kinematic viscosity @ 135 °C ASTM D2170 mm2/s 420
where YI and YII are the geometry factors of mode I and mode II (i.e. opening and Kinematic viscosity @ 150 °C ASTM D2170 mm2/s 232
shearing modes, respectively) which are functions of the crack length (a), the Penetration index (PI)a – – –1.12
semi-disc radius (R), and the loading support distances (S1 and S2). t is the specimen Performance grade (PG) – – 64–22
thickness and Pf refers to the fracture load of the SCB specimen. a
PI = [1952–500 log (Pen25)  20SP]/[50 log (Pen25)  SP  120].
Ayatollahi and co-workers [55], determined YI and YII for this specimen using
extensive finite element numerical analysis under different mixed mode loading
by means of J-integral method. The contribution of modes I and II in the crack tip
deformation can be expressed in terms of the parameter Me , which is a mixity
parameter defined as: Table 3
Physical properties of limestone aggregate.
 
2 KI
Me ¼ tan1 ð3Þ Test Unit Test method Limestone aggregate
p K II
Specific gravity g/cm3 ASTM C-127 2.61
Me varies between 0 and 1 for different mode mixities such that pure mode I L.A. Abrasion % AASHTO T-96 4.6
occurs at Me = 1 and Me = 0 corresponds to pure mode II. Furthermore, the effective Absorption (coarse aggregate) % AASHTO T-85 2.2
mixed mode I/II fracture toughness (Keff) is defined as: Absorption (fine aggregate) % AASHTO T-84 2.4
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Percent fracture (one face) % ASTM D5821 100
K eff ¼ K 2I þ K 2II ð4Þ Percent fracture (two face) % ASTM D5821 98

Accordingly, several modified and unmodified asphalt mixtures were tested in

this research under four different loading situations (i.e. pure mode I (Me = 1),
mixed mode I/II with higher fraction of mode I (Me = 0.8), mixed mode I/II with
higher fraction of mode II (Me = 0.38), and pure mode II (Me = 0)). The loading
100
support distances (S1 and S2), and the corresponding geometry factors for any of 90
the testing cases have been presented in Table 1.
80
Percent Passing (%)

70
2.2. Base bitumen and aggregates
60
The base bitumen used for preparation of asphalt mixtures was binder 60/70 50
with performance grade of PG 64-22 obtained from Tehran oil refinery. The lime-
40
stone aggregates with grading NO. 4 (according to Iranian paving code 234), with
the nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) of 19 mm was also chosen for man- 30
ufacturing the asphalt mixtures. The characteristic specifications of the base binder 20
and limestone aggregate are presented in Tables 2 and 3 and Fig. 2, respectively. The
curves presented in Fig. 2, correspond to the upper limit, average limit, and lower 10
limit of the gradation and in this research, the aggregates were prepared according 0
to the average curve (i.e. the middle one in Fig. 2). 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)

Fig. 2. Asphalt mixture aggregates gradation.

P

2.3. Mixing procedure of additives

As mentioned earlier, five additives namely PPA, CR, SBS, Sasobit, and
anti-stripping agent were chosen to use in the composition of asphalt mixtures of
R this study. The optimum percentages of each additive and its mixing temperature
with binder have already been obtained and proposed in previous research studies
a [24–41]. The main specifications of each modifier are briefly outlined in the
following.
S1 S2 PPA used in this study is ‘‘STARPHOS 04’’ from STAR ASPHALT co., Italy (see
Table 4 for its properties). To ensure the appropriate mixing of the PPA with bitu-
Fig. 1. Geometry of the semi-circular bending test specimen used for mixed mode I/ men, PPA was mixed with 1 wt.% (i.e. weight percentage) of bitumen at 160 °C
II asphalt fracture toughness testing. for 30 min.
548 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555

Table 4 Table 6
Characteristics of PPA used in this study. Characteristics of SBS used in this study.

Characteristics Unit Description Quantity Test method Unit Test

Appearance @ 25 °C – Viscous liquid 5 MA 04-3-064 Pa.s Toluene soluble viscosity
Melting point °C 20–30 <0.1 MA 04-3-018 (%) Toluene insoluble materials
Color – Clear <0.35 ASTM D-5669 (%) Ash content
Viscosity @ 25 °C cP 840
Density @ 25 °C g/cm3 2.02
Boiling point °C 275>
Table 7
The mixing process of CR and bitumen was implemented at 175 °C for 120 min- Characteristics of Sasobit used in this study.
utes with 6000 rpm high shear mixer following by 60 extra minutes at 1000 rpm at
Characteristics Standard Unit Description
150 °C. CR was applied in amount of 15 wt.% of the base bitumen. The properties of
CR are listed in Table 5. Congealing point ASTM D938 °C 106
The SBS used in this study was produced by Dynasol co. (Spain). The properties Penetration @ 25 °C ASTM D1321 dmm <1
of this polymer have been summarized in Table 6. The mixing of the SBS with Penetration @ 65 °C ASTM D1321 dmm 6
bitumen is similar to the procedure described for the CR. The SBS content of the Appearance – – Prills (diameter = 1 mm)
mix was about 5 wt.% of the bitumen.
Sasobit was added to base bitumen in the amount of 2.5 wt.% of base bitumen at
130 °C. The mixing was carried out for 10 minutes with low shear mixer at a fre-
Table 8
quency of 300 rpm. Table 7 presents the properties of Sasobit used in this research.
Characteristics of anti–stripping agent used in this study.
The anti-stripping agent used in this study was ‘‘STARDOP 130 P’’ provided from
STAR ASPHALT co., Italy. STARDOP 130 P is a liquid cationic adhesion promoter for Characteristics Unit Description
pure bitumen and polymer modified bitumen based on inorganic esters and veg-
etable oils. The properties of STARDOP 130 P can be seen in Table 8. In this research, Appearance @ 25 °C – Dark liquid
the anti–stripping agent was added to the base bitumen in amount of 0.4 wt.% of Color – Brown
base bitumen at 145 °C and mixing was carried out for 30 minutes with low shear Flammability °C >140
mixer at a frequency of 1000 rpm. PH – N.A.
Physical properties of the modified bitumen materials have also been compared Viscosity @ 50 °C °E 6.4
with the base binder in Table 9, where in Table 9, B, BA, BP, BSa, BSb and BCR, refer Density @ 15 °C kg/L 0.975
to Base bitumen, anti-stripping modified bitumen, Polyphosphoric modified Boiling point °C 275<
bitumen, Sosobit modified bitumen, SBS modified bitumen and crumb rubber
modified bitumen, respectively.
Table 9
Physical propitious of base and modified bitumen materials.
3. Samples preparation and experimental set up Test B BA BP BSa BSb BCR
Penetration (at 25 °C) 62 56 48 45 43 44
In order to produce the same condition for the test samples and Ductility (25 °C) (cm) >100 >100 >100 >100 >100 >100
for investigating only the effect of compaction energy (air void Softening point (°C) 49 53 61 63 66 67
percentage) on the behavior of modified asphalt mixtures, a fixed Performance grade 64–22 64–22 70–22 70–22 70–28 70–28
optimum percentage of bitumen (i.e. 4.5 wt.%) of the asphalt
mixtures was used for manufacturing the whole mixtures. This
using the procedure described above, several edge-cracked
optimum bitumen percentage was obtained from the Marshall
semi-circular specimens were manufactured with different binder
mix design of unmodified asphalt mixture. The air void contents
types. Fig. 3 shows some steps of specimen preparation for fracture
of 3% and 7% were considered for investigating the influence of
testing of this research.
air void percentage on the fracture resistance of modified and
The fracture toughness experiments were conducted at four
unmodified asphalt mixtures. A gyratory compactor machine
loading modes of Me = 1, 0.8, 0.38, and 0 at three temperatures of
(GCM) with different compaction energies was used for creating
30, 22 and 15 °C. The cracked SCB samples were kept inside
the mentioned air void contents. The required air void percentages
a freezer for 8 hours and then were placed inside the three-point
(i.e. 3% and 7%) were obtained with a tolerance of ±0.5% by 90 and
bend fixture in which the locations of right bottom loading roller
35 gyratory rotations, respectively. The mixing process of the bitu-
were variable to introduce the required mode mixities. The sam-
men with aggregates was performed at different temperatures
ples were then loaded using 15 kN SANTAM compression test
depending on the type of modifier and using the viscosity results
machine with the cross head speed of 3 mm/min until the final
obtained for modified binders. Accordingly, several cylindrical
fracture.
asphalt samples with diameter of 150 mm and height of 130 mm
Fig. 4 shows the schematic of loading setup for testing of the
were manufactured using different modifiers and two gyratory
considered mode mixtures (i.e. the bottom loading support loca-
rotations of 35 and 90.
tions relative to the crack line). While the left loading support dis-
Each cylinder was then sliced into three discs of 32 mm thick-
tance (S1) was equal to 50 mm for the whole tests, the distance of
ness using a high speed rotary diamond saw water-cooled masonry
right variable support (S2) was changed from 50 mm (for pure
machine. The discs were then split into two halves to produce two
mode I) to 9 mm (for pure mode II). The fracture toughness (or crit-
semi-circles. A very narrow notch with a length of 20 mm and
ical values of stress intensity factor at the onset of fracture, KIf and
width of 0.4 mm was then introduced at the middle of the flat edge
KIIf) of the tested samples were determined from Eqs. (5) and (6)
by a very thin rotary high-speed diamond saw blade. Accordingly,
using the critical fracture loads (Pcr) obtained from each experi-
Table 5 ment and the geometry factors (YI and YII) presented in Table 1
Characteristics of CR modifier used in this study. (extracted from [3] for each mode mixity).
Characteristics Unit Description Pf pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
K If ¼ p aY I ð5Þ
Moisture content % 0.1 2R t
Maximum grain size mm 0.4
Unit weight g/cm3 0.31 P f pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Ash content % 10 K IIf ¼ p aY II ð6Þ
2R t
 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555 549

Fig. 3. Some of the steps for preparing the SCB test specimens.

Fig. 4. (a) loading support locations (dimensions in mm) for introducing different mode mixities, (b) a typical loading set up for testing the SCB samples.

For conducting the fracture toughness experiments, a total
number of 288 modified and unmodified asphalt mixtures in the
shape of SCB specimen were manufactured and then tested. For
each asphalt mixture and mode mixity, three fracture tests were
conducted to obtain an average value for fracture toughness. The
summary of conducted experimental program is presented in the
flowchart of Fig. 5.
4. Results and discussions
In this section, the influence of modifier type, air void percent-
age and the temperature change is investigated on the fracture
toughness of asphalt mixtures. The critical fracture mode of each
mixture is also obtained experimentally.
4.1. Effect of additive type on mixed mode fracture toughness of
modified asphalt mixtures
The average values of critical stress intensity factors are shown
in Fig. 6 for the tested modified and unmodified asphalt mixtures
under different mode mixities. These tests were performed at
15 °C and the compaction energy level was equal to 90 gyratory
rotations (i.e. air void percentage of about 3%) for all investigated
mixtures. As seen from this Figure the modified asphalt mixtures
550 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555

Fracture test
specimens

Pure mode I Mixed mode I/II Mixed mode I/II Pure mode II
e e
(M =0.38) (M =0. 8)

-15 C -22 C -30 C

3 B, BA, BP, BSa, BSb, BCR

Effect of
air void

7 B, BA, BP, BSa, BSb, BCR

Fig. 5. Flowchart of experimental program of this research.

Fig. 6. Fracture toughness values of modified and unmodified asphalt mixtures at gyratory rotation of 90 and for different mode mixities.

show higher fracture toughness in comparison with the
unmodified asphalt mixtures for all mode mixities.
Among the investigated modified asphalt mixtures, the mixture
containing CR (BCR) provided the highest resistance against crack-
ing for the whole modes I and II mixities. The most enhancements
in the value of fracture toughness were observed for BCR subjected
to pure mode II loading. Swell of binder, due to reaction of CR par-
ticles with bitumen through absorption of aromatic particles of
bitumen, results in improving the rheological behavior of bitumen
[29,32,34]. Thus, this can decrease the lower limit of PG and also at
the same time can conversely increase the higher limit of PG as
presented in Table 9. From the other hand, the high ability of
energy absorbing and the improved resilient behavior of bitumen
modified with the CR can increase the fracture resistance for this
type of asphalt mixture against low temperature cracking. This
conclusion is in agreement with other similar research studies that
have been conducted only for pure mode I [21,56,57].
The binder modified with the SBS had both elastic and thermo-
plastic behaviors due to having poly-styrene blocks and butadiene
middle blocks. Thus similar to the BCR, reduction in the lower PG
limit and increase of higher PG limit is also seen in the BSb.
Existence of butadiene blocks with glass transition temperature
of 75 °C [24,25], can improve the resistance of binder against
low temperature cracking. Accordingly as shown in Fig. 6, the
BSb asphalt mixtures showed the highest fracture resistance value
after the BCR mixtures for the entire tensile–shear mode mixities.
While for pure modes I and II cases, both BSb and BSa mixtures had
approximately similar fracture toughness values but their behavior
 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555
were different under mixed mode loading conditions. Furthermore,
in contrast with the BCR mixtures, the highest fracture toughness
values of the BSb mixtures were observed at pure mode I condition.
Sasobit can increase the stiffness of binder due to creation of a
crystalline structure [36–38]. This can increase the risk of cracking
at lower temperatures, but since the test temperature (15 °C) was
higher than the lower PG limit of the binder modified with the
Sasobit, a small increase still is seen in the value of fracture tough-
ness of BSa mixture in comparison with the unmodified asphalt
mixture. This can be attributed to the higher stiffness of the BSa
relative to the unmodified binder which can increase the required
peak load for initiation of fracture from the tip of pre-existing
crack. However, this enhancement was more pronounced only
for pure mode I loading case.
For the asphalt mixtures containing PPA (BP) and anti-stripping
agent (BA), the fracture toughness results demonstrated that the
influence of these two modifiers is not significant on mixed mode
fracture behavior of asphalt mixtures. For example, the use of PPA
can even decrease the mixed mode fracture resistance of mixture
in comparison with the unmodified mixture. Performance of
asphalt mixture modified with PPA, is noticeably affected by the
characteristics of the base bitumen [22]. A small improvement of
fracture resistance in the samples containing anti-stripping modi-
fier was due to the higher tensile strength and greater binding
between the binder and aggregates. Since at low temperature test
conditions, the tensile stresses between the binder and aggregate
become more due to contractile stress and hence the higher
cohesion between the bitumen and aggregate would increase the
resistance of material against cracking. Consequently, according
to this section, the fracture toughness of modified asphalt mixtures
strongly depends on the type of additive used in the composition of
mixture.
4.2. Effect of air void on mixed mode fracture toughness of modified
asphalt mixtures
In order to study the influence of compaction energy and air
void percentage on the fracture toughness of modified asphalt mix-
tures, a number of SCB specimens made of asphalt mixtures with
35 gyratory rotations (GR) and the air void percentage of about
7% were also manufactured and tested at 15 °C and their corre-
sponding fracture toughness results were compared with the
results of pervious section (i.e. GR = 90 rotation and air void per-
centage of 3%). Fig. 7 shows the fracture toughness results of spec-
imen prepared with 35 gyratory rotations. The fracture toughness
ratio (Keff @ GR=90/Keff @ GR=35) has been presented in Fig. 8.
Comparison of Figs. 6 and 7 demonstrates that the trends of
fracture toughness results for mixtures compacted with 90 gyra-
tory rotations are similar to those previously observed for the mix-
tures with 35 gyratory rotations. For example, similar to Fig. 6, the
data shown in Fig. 7 indicates that the greatest fracture toughness
values for the whole mode mixities were related to the BCR mix-
tures and again pure mode II fracture toughness of the BCR mixture
is the greatest KIIc value among the investigated mixtures.
However the difference between the fracture toughness values of
the BSa and BSb mixtures manufactured with 35 GR were reduced
in comparison with the specimen manufactured with 90 GR. This
can be possibly attributed to the lower viscosity of binder modified
with Sasobit such that can result on better compaction of the BSa
mixtures in comparison with the BSb mixtures at smaller com-
paction energy of 35 gyratory rotation. Indeed, the BSb mixture
was more sensitive to the compaction level or the air void content.
Although the effect of compaction energy on pure mode II or pure
shear loading of mixtures containing the BSb and BSa modifiers
becomes smaller, but both mixtures showed higher fracture tough-
ness values in comparison with the unmodified asphalt mixtures.
551
The variation of fracture toughness for the BP and BA at GR = 35
and GR = 90 were similar.
It should be noted that, for the whole modified and unmodified
mixtures, the fracture toughness values decrease when the air void
percentage was increased (i.e. by reducing the compaction energy)
as shown in Fig. 8. The effect of compaction energy on mixed mode
fracture resistance of modified asphalt mixtures investigated in
this research was different. For mixed mode tensile–shear loading
conditions, the influence of increasing air void on the reduction of
Keff was more pronounced for those mixtures containing CR addi-
tive. While for pure mode II loading case this phenomenon (i.e.
the most reduction in the fracture toughness) was observed for
mixture containing BP additive when the air void content was
increased from 3% to 7%. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
reduction of fracture toughness depends on the type of additive
and the loading mode as well.
4.3. Effect of loading mode on mixed mode fracture resistance of
modified asphalt mixtures
Figs. 9 and 10 show the variations of fracture toughness for the
modified and unmodified asphalt mixtures manufactured at two
gyratory rotations of 35 and 90 and tested at different mode mix-
ities ranging from pure mode I (Me = 1) to pure mode II (Me = 0). As
seen from these figures, for both compaction energy levels, by
increasing the contribution of shear deformation (i.e. moving from
Me = 1 to Me = 0) the fracture toughness value is decreased for both
tested mixed mode I/II conditions (i.e. Me = 0.8 and 0.38) relative to
the pure mode I case and then its value is increased for pure mode
II loading condition. Accordingly, the most reduction in the value of
fracture toughness of the modified and unmodified asphalt mix-
tures is observed at Me = 0.38. This reduction is more pronounced
for the mixture having greater values of air void content.
The value of fracture toughness was dependent on the additive
type for each mode mixity. As stated earlier, the modified asphalt
mixture made of CR additive had the greatest fracture toughness
value for all mode mixities, which demonstrates the better perfor-
mance of this type of mixture against cold thermal cracking. Under
the mixed mode tensile–shear loading condition, the lowest fracture
toughness values was related to the BP, BA, B, BSa, BSb mixtures,
respectively. The BP mixture showed even somewhat a lesser mixed
mode I/II fracture toughness than the mixture made of base bitu-
men. Moreover, except for the BCR mixture, the greatest value of
fracture toughness was obtained at pure mode I loading conditions.
Recently, some research studies have been performed to figure
out the critical mode of fracture in the asphalt mixtures. For exam-
ple, Ayatollahi and Pirmohammad [20,23], Ameri et al. [19], and
Artamendi and Khalid [58] investigated the influence of tempera-
ture on fracture resistance of different asphalt mixtures and found
that the smallest value of fracture toughness (i.e. the critical mode
of fracture) is occurred at different mode mixities of Me = 0.8, 0.57
and 0.3, respectively. But, Aliha et al. [3] showed experimentally
that the critical mode of fracture for unmodified asphalt mixtures,
depends noticeably on the characteristic specifications of asphalt
mixture including the size and type of aggregates, binder type,
and air void percentage. Moreover, the type of loading setup for
testing the SCB specimens in the work of Ayatollahi and
Pirmohammad [20,23], Ameri et al. [19] and Artamendi and
Khalid [58] was different with the employed configuration by
Aliha et al. [3]. While in Refs. [19,20,23] the state of mode mixity
was controlled by changing both crack location and loading sup-
ports of the SCB specimen, Artamendi and Khalid [58] used an
inclined edge cracked SCB specimen for conducting their mixed
mode fracture toughness experiments. This issue (i.e. the type of
SCB configuration) can be considered as another possible affecting
parameter on the critical mode of fracture. However, the result of
552 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555

Fig. 7. Fracture toughness values of modified and unmodified asphalt mixtures at gyratory rotation of 35 and for different mode mixities.

4.4. Effect of temperature on mixed mode fracture toughness of

modified asphalt mixtures

In order to study the effect of temperature on the fracture resis-

tance of investigated asphalt materials, several fracture toughness
experiments were performed on asphalt mixtures compacted with
90 gyratory rotation and at three subzero temperatures. According
to the superpave tests and the performance grade (PG) values
determined for each modified asphalt mixture, the test tempera-
tures were chosen as: (i) 15 °C (i.e. temperature greater than
the lower limit of PG for the base binder used for manufacturing
the modified asphalt mixtures), (ii) 22 °C (i.e. the lower limit of
PG of B, BA, BP, and BSa), and (iii) 30 °C (i.e. the temperature
lower than the lower PG limit of the whole used modified binders).
For better understanding the behavior of modified binder at low

90 Gyratory Rotaon
Fig. 8. Fracture toughness ratio at two gyratory rotations of 90 and 35 (Keff @ 90 GR/
Keff @ 35 GR) for the tested mixtures. 1.60
Stress Intensity Factor

1.40 B
all and the present research work, reveal that the critical fracture
BA
mode is occurred at combined tensile–shear loading conditions
(MPa.m 0 .5 )

1.20
and not at pure mode opening or shearing cases. However, most BP
of the previous research papers have focused on the pure mode I BSa
1.00
fracture toughness of asphalt mixtures. Based on the finding of this
BSb
research the critical mode (i.e. the lowest fracture toughness) was 0.80 BCr
observed at Me = 0.38 for the whole six investigated mixtures.
Hence, it can be concluded that although modification of asphalt 0.60
mixtures with commonly used modifiers can increase in general 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
the crack growth resistance of different types of modified asphalt Me
mixtures, but the critical mode of fracture is controlled mainly
by other affecting parameters such as binder and aggregate type, Fig. 9. Variations of mixed mode stress intensity factors for mixtures prepared with
gyratory rotation of 90 GR.
gradation of aggregate, and etc. [3].
 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555 553

35 Gyratory Rotaon 1.30

1.30 B BA BP

Keff Rao (Keff (-22°C) /Keff(-15°C) )

1.25
Stress Intensity Factor

1.20 BSa BSb BCr

B
1.20
1.10 BA
(MPa.m 0.5 )

1.15
1.00 BP

0.90 BSa 1.10

0.80 BSb 1.05

BCr
0.70 1.00
0.60
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0.95
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Me
Me
Fig. 10. Variations of mixed mode stress intensity factors for mixtures prepared
with gyratory rotation of 35 GR. Fig. 12. Fracture toughness ratio at two test temperatures (Keff @ (22 °C)/Keff

@ (15 °C))
for different mode mixities.
temperatures, the variations of stiffness versus temperature have
been shown in Fig. 11 based on the results of Bending Beam
Rheometre (BBR) test of the modified and unmodified binders. It 1.20
is seen from this Figure that the binders that were modified with 1.15 B BA BP

Keff Rao (Keff(-30 °C) /Keff (-22°C))

the CR and SBS additives provide lower stiffness values in compar- 1.10
BSa BSb BCr
ison with the other modified binders. Accordingly, the lower PG
1.05
limit of these binders was determined about 28 °C. Moreover
the modified binders with anti-stripping agent and Sasobit showed 1.00
higher stiffness than the base bitumen at low temperature (i.e. 0.95
about 22 °C). The lower PG limit for preparing the B, BA, BP and 0.90
BSa specimens was therefore 22 °C.
0.85
Figs. 12 and 13 show the fracture toughness ratio (Keff @
(22 °C)/Keff @ (15 °C)) and (Keff @ (30 °C)/Keff @ (22 °C)) for different 0.80
mode mixities of the tested modified asphalt mixtures. 0.75
Accordingly, the variation of stress intensity factor at each refer- 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
ence temperature can be compared with the corresponding frac- Me
ture toughness value obtained at a higher temperature.
As seen from Fig. 12, up to 22 °C an enhancement in the value Fig. 13. Fracture toughness ratio at two test temperatures (Keff @ (830 °C)/Keff @

of fracture toughness is seen for the tested mixtures in comparison
with the fracture toughness results obtained at 15 °C. Indeed, the
decrease in the test temperature up to 22 °C can increase the
stiffness of mixture and hence can increase the required load for
initiation of fracture in the tested specimens. The mentioned
enhancement in fracture toughness ratio is more pronounced for
mixed mode loading condition of the modified mixtures examined
in this research. In other words, it can be concluded that by
decreasing the test temperature, the difference between the frac-
ture toughness of pure modes I and II and mixed mode I/II becomes
smaller. The maximum increase in the ratio of fracture toughness
at two temperatures of (22 and 15 °C) was related to the BCR
and BSb mixtures. Conversely, the minimum increase in the ratio
1000
Sffness (MPa)
(22 °C))
for different mode mixities.
of Keff @ (22 °C)/Keff @ (15 °C) was observed for the BA and BSa mix-
tures. This observation can be attributed to the higher stiffness of
binder containing Sasobit and anti-stripping agent at low temper-
atures (as shown in Fig. 11).
The fracture toughness ratio (Keff @ (30 °C)/Keff @ (22 °C)) for dif-
ferent mode mixities have been presented in Fig. 13 for the six
tested asphalt mixtures. It is seen that except for the BCR mixture,
the fracture toughness has been decreased at -30 °C in comparison
with the greater temperature of -22 °C. This reduction was more
pronounced for the B, BA, and BSa mixtures which their binder
had the lower PG limit of 22 °C.
The most reduction in the value of fracture toughness was
related to the mixtures containing Sasobit and anti-stripping agent
modifiers. However, the fracture behavior of BSb and BCR mixtures
was not noticeably sensitive to the temperature when the test
temperature was varied from 22 to 30 °C. This is mainly
because of the lower PG limit of 28 °C for these two modified bin-

ders containing CR and SBS additives. Indeed by decreasing the test

temperature up to the lower PG limit range, the stiffness of binder
100 becomes more, and hence the required critical fracture load for ini-
tiation stage of crack growth in the asphalt mixtures also becomes
greater. However, when the temperature becomes lesser than the
lower PG limit of binder, this condition may result in nucleation
B BA BP
of micro cracks inside the binder that leads to more brittleness of
BSa BSb BCr
bitumen and reduction in the bounding between the binder and
10 aggregates. Therefore, a reduction in the crack growth resistance
-24 -18 -12 -6
of asphalt mixture is expected to occur in such low temperature
Temperature (°C)
conditions. As a conclusion, the trend of changes in fracture tough-
Fig. 11. Variations of stiffness for modified binders with temperature obtained ness ratio with the test temperature depends on the mode mixity
from BBR test. and the type of additive used.
554 M.R.M. Aliha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 545–555
5. Conclusions
In this study, the influence of some affecting parameters includ-
ing the type of additives that are frequently used for modifying the
bitumen (such as SBS, PPA, CR, Sasobit, Anti stripping agent), the
air void content (i.e. 3% and 7%), temperature change (30, 22
and 15 °C) and tensile–shear mode mixities, were investigated
on the crack growth resistance of different asphalt mixtures. The
main concluding remarks of this research are:
– The modified asphalt mixtures showed higher fracture tough-
ness values in comparison with the unmodified one for both
air void contents of manufactured samples. The mixtures con-
taining CR and SBS had the most enhancements on the fracture
toughness value of modified asphalt materials. But the use of
PPA modifier had no significant influence on the performance
of asphalt mixture against cracking.
– The behavior of modified asphalt mixtures was dependent on
the mode mixity. The maximum values of the fracture tough-
ness for BCR was obtained at pure mode II (pure shear) loading
condition, but for other modified asphalt mixtures, the maxi-
mum fracture toughness value was obtained at pure tensile or
pure mode I loading.
– By increasing the air void percentage from 3% to 7%, the fracture
toughness of all mixtures was decreased. This reduction was
more pronounced at Me = 0.38.
– Different trends were observed for the variations of fracture
toughness by decreasing the test temperature. Such that up to
the lower PG limit range of binders, the fracture toughness of
tested mixtures was increased. However, when the test temper-
ature became lesser than the lower PG limit of each binder, the
fracture toughness was decreased. The increase in the fracture
toughness with decreasing the test temperature was more pro-
nounced for the mixed mode loading with higher fraction of
shear deformation (i.e. Me = 0.38).
– The critical mode of fracture (i.e. the lowest fracture toughness
value) was not noticeably sensitive to the type of modifier and
for the whole modified and unmodified asphalt mixtures was
obtained under mode mixity of Me = 0.38. In other words, the
critical mode of fracture was affected mainly by the character-
istic parameters such as the base bitumen type, air void per-
centage, aggregate type and the test specimen configuration
and its loading setup.
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