INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

Classification and Operating Forces

Indicating instruments are analogue devices that show the quantity that is measured on a
graduated scale using pointers. They are classified based on their basis of operation and the
forces operating on them.

Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of the instantaneous value
being measured by means of a pointer over a calibrated scale. The indication of pointer also
changes with respect to time giving no scope to know the previous value. They include:
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Frequency meter, and Power factor meter among others.

Indicating instrument consists of essentially a pointer moving over a calibrated scale and
attached to moving system pivoted on jewelled hearings. For satisfactory working of
indicating instruments, the following forces or torque are required. These are:

i. Deflecting force or torque

ii. Controlling force or torque
iii. Dumping force or torque

Main parts of Indicating Instruments

Indicating instruments are those which indicate the value of the quantity under measurement.
The main parts of indicating instruments are.,

 Pointer.
 Pre-Calibrated Scale.
 Moving system with spindle, pivoted in jewelled bearings.
 Deflecting or operating torque.
 Controlling or restoring torque.
 Damping torque.

Classifications on indicating instruments

Basic classification.
 Here the electrical signal is translated to mechanical movement as
Electromechanical
means for indication
Giving very fast output which follows the static and dynamic
Electronic
characteristics of the measurant.

Based on principle of operation

Essential features For precise operation of indicating instruments are, 1. Deflecting force, 2.
Controlling force, 3. Damping force.

1) Deflecting force

This force is responsible for moving the pointer from the ZERO position where the pointer is
in absence of an input. Deflecting system or moving system that carries out this force is
usually converting a electrical input to an mechanical output.
i. Magnitude effect
When current passes through the coil it produces a magnetic field. When a soft-iron piece is
brought near this coil it is magnetized. Depending upon the current direction the poles are
produced in such a way that there will be a force of attraction between the coil and the soft
iron piece used in moving iron attraction type instrument. Similarly, if two soft iron pieces
are near a current carrying coil there will be a force of repulsion between the two soft iron
pieces. Which is used in the moving iron repulsion type instrument.

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ii. Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil

A current carrying coil placed under the influence of magnetic field of a permanent magnet
will deflect due to force produced between them. This principle is utilized in the moving coil
type instrument.

iii. Force between two current carrying coil

two current carrying coils placed closer to each other repulses each other. If one coil is
movable and other is fixed, the movable coil will move away from the fixed one. This
principle is utilized in electrodynamometer type instrument.

2). Controlling force

Controlling system produces a force that produces the deflection in the pointer proportional
to the input magnitude. Without this, the pointer once deflected will keep moving till the
maximum position irrespective of the input magnitude. The function of the controlling torque
are:

1. Produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force at the steady (final) position
to make the deflection of the pointer unique for a particular magnitude of input.
2. To bring back the moving system back to zero when the factor causing the deflection
is removed. Without this, the pointer stays in its maximum position without moving
back to zero.
i. Spring control:
Hair spring made of phosphobronze provides a restoring torque directly proportional to the
angle of deflection(θ) when it twists. At equilibrium Tc = Td
Ie Tc α θ.
For this the spring should have large number of coils so the deflection per unit length is
negligible and the deformation is not permanent.
Characteristics of the spring:

 Non-magnetic
 Resistance to fatigue
 Low specific resistance
 Low temperature coefficient
ii. Gravity control
Weights are used to balance the motion of pointer. Adjusting the weight by screwing up and
down helps with the control. Torque produced is proportional to sinθ, where θ is the
displacement of pointer from null position. Tc = k sinθ
Advantages of gravity over spring control

 Cheap
 Not affected by temperature
 Not susceptible to fatigue with time

Disadvantages of gravity control

 Cramped scale (non-linear)

 Instrument needs to be vertical

3) Damping force

Both the deflecting system and the controlling system act with inertial forces, thereby there is
always an overshoot from the desired value. The pointer always shoots from O to A and then
deflects back to B moving to and fro gradually reducing its amplitude before settling on the
correct position of O. This is because with the deflecting Td and the controlling forces Tc
being equal in magnitude and opposite to each other at the point A, Tc > Td, it moves back to
B where Td > Tc.

Damping forces are employed to provide a damping effect on this oscillation to settle the
pointer much faster, and an equilibrium is achieved smoothly.

i. Air damping
Uses a vane or piston mounted to the moving system (pointer) attached to a spindle through a
rod with one end moving in air chamber.
The change in the air pressure as the piston moves towards or away from the end of the
chamber provides the necessary damping force. When the piston moves away from the end of
the chamber the air pressure between the piston end and the chamber wall is less than the
pressure outside which pushes the piston in and vice versa.
Used in moving iron instrument, they are cheap and easy to make. But precaution in design
is necessary for instance the walls of the chamber must be uniform and the piston should not
be bend.

ii. Fluid friction damping

In the place of air, fluid is filled such as mineral oil. But the principle is the same as air
friction. The vane mounted on to the moving system is completely immersed in the oil. The
oil provides the damping effect on the vane. Being much denser, they provide greater
damping forces. They are used in electrostatic type instruments
Design precaution:
The oil, which is a good insulator, should not

1. evaporate easily
2. have any corrosive effect on metals.
3. Have its viscosity change much with temperature.

Advantages of fluid friction damping:

 Good insulation by oil

 Less strain on the spindle and no frictional error

Disadvantage of fluid damping:

 They can only be placed in vertical position.

 Oil leakage
 Not portable

iii. Eddy current damping

Eddy currents are localized loops of current induced in the conductor due to the change in the
magnetic field, perpendicular to the magnetic field. These induced currents produce magnetic
fields of its own that counter acts the magnetic field that created the current in the first place.
Used largely in PMMC, they cannot be used in places where magnetic field affects the
system like moving iron and dynamometer.

Methods of eddy current damping

a) A metal former that carries the working coil

When the spindle rotates, the disc cuts the magnetic field between the damping magnet
producing eddy current. (A moving coil in magnetic field produces current)

b) A thin disc attached to the moving system, that moves in the field of permanent magnet.

Eddy currents are induced in the metal former which when the coil tries to move exerts a
damping force on it,

METHODS OF RANGE EXTENSION

Range Extension of Ammeters | Voltmeters

There is no fundamental difference in the operating principles of ammeters and voltmeters.
Both are current operated devices (except electrostatic type voltmeters) i.e. deflecting torque
is produced when current flows through their operating coils.
 
In an ammeter, the deflecting torque is produced by the current to be measured or by a
definite fraction of it whereas in a voltmeter torque is produced by the current proportional to
the voltage to be measured.
 
Thus, the real difference between the two instruments is in the magnitude of the
currents producing the deflecting torque. The essential requirements of a measuring
instrument are that its introduction into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does
not alter the circuit conditions and the power consumed by them for their operation is small.
 
An ammeter is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be measured.
Therefore, it should have a low resistance. On the other hand, a voltmeter is connected in
parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be measured; therefore, it must have high
resistance.
 
Thus we conclude that the difference is only in the resistance of the instrument, in fact, an
ammeter can be converted into voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with
it.
 
It is already seen that the moving coil instruments can carry the maximum current of about 50
mA safely and the potential drop across the moving coil instrument is about 50 mV.
However, in practice, heavy currents and voltages are required to be measured. Therefore, it
becomes necessary that the current and voltage being measured be reduced and brought
within the range of the instrument.
 

There are four common devices used for the range extension of ammeter and voltmeter
namely; shunts, multipliers and current and potential transformers.
 
The shunts and multipliers are used to extend the range of moving coil ammeters and
voltmeters respectively.
 
Whereas in the case of moving iron ammeters, for the ranges up to 0 – 250 A, shunts are used
and for the ranges higher than that, CTs are used.
 
And also, in the case of moving iron voltmeters, for the ranges up to 0 – 750 V, multipliers
are used and for the ranges higher than that, PTs are used.

1) Range Extension of Ammeter by Shunt

 
Shunts are used for the range extension of ammeters. A shunt is a low-value resistance
having minimum temperature co-efficient and is connected in parallel with the ammeter
whose range is to be extended. The combination is connected in series with the circuit whose
current is to be measured.
 
This shunt provides a bypath for extra current because it is connected across (i.e. in parallel
with) the instrument.
 
These shunted instruments can be used to measure currents many times greater than their
normal full-scale deflection currents.
 
The ratio of maximum current (with shunt) to the full-scale deflection current (without shunt)
is known as the ‘multiplying power’ or ‘multiplying factor’ of the shunt.
 
Example: A moving coil ammeter reading up to 1 ampere has a resistance of 0.02 ohm. How
could this instrument be adopted to read current up to 100 amperes.
 
Solution: In this case,
Full-scale deflection current of the ammeter, Im = 1 A
Line current to be measured, I = 100 A
Resistance of ammeter,    Rm = 0.02 ohm
Let, the required shunt resistance = S
As seen from Figure, the voltage across the instrument coil and the shunt resistance is the
same since
both are joined in parallel.
 
∴ Im x Rm = S x Is = S(I − Im)
 
or  S =  Im x Rm/(I – Im)
 
 =  1 x 0.02/(100 – 1) = 0.02/99 =  0.000202  Ans.
 

2) Range Extension of Voltmeter by Multiplier

 
Multipliers are used for the range extension of voltmeters. The multiplier is a non-inductive
high-value resistance connected in series with the instrument whose range is to be extended.
The combination is connected across the circuit whose voltage is to be measured.
 
Example: A moving coil voltmeter reading up to 20 mV has a resistance of 2 ohms. How this
instrument can be adopted to read voltage up to 300 volts.
 
Solution: In this case,
Voltmeter resistance,              Rm = 2 ohm
Full-scale  voltage of the voltmeter, ν = RmIm = 20 mV = 0.02 V
Full-scale deflection current,            Im = v/Rm = 0.02/2 = 0.01 A
Voltage to be measured,                   V = 300 V
Let the series resistance required       = R
 

Then as seen from figure, the voltage drop across R is V – ν

 
 R x Im = V – ν
 
 or R = (V – v)/Im
 
or R = (300 – 0.02)/0.01 = 299.98/0.01 = 29998 ohms Ans.
 
 
Shunts cannot be used to extend the range of moving-iron AC ammeters accurately. It is
because the division of current between the operating coil and the shunt varies with frequency
(since reactance of the coil depends upon frequency). In practice, the range of moving-iron
AC ammeters are extended by one of following methods:
 

Range Extension of Ammeter by Coil Turns

 
By changing the number of turns of the operating coil. For example, suppose that full-scale
deflection is obtained with 400 ampere-turns. For full-scale reading with 100A, the number
of turns required would be = 400 / 100 = 4. Similarly, for full-scale reading with 50A, the
number of turns required in = 400/50 = 8.
 
Thus the ammeter can be arranged to have different ranges by merely having a different
number of turns on the coil. Since the coil carries the whole of the current to be measured, it
has a few turns of thick wire. The usual ranges obtained by this method are from 0 -250 A.
 

Range Extension of Ammeter by Current Transformer

 
For ranges above 0 – 250 A, a current transformer is used in conjunction with 0 – 5 A moving
iron AC ammeter as shown in the figure. The current transformer is a step-up transformer i.e.
number of secondary turns is more than the primary turns.
 
Usually, the primary winding of the transformer contains a single turn or at the most a few
turns. The primary of this transformer is connected in series with the load and carries the load
current. The AC ammeter is connected across the secondary of the transformer.
 
Since in figure, the current transformer ratio is 10:1, it means that line (or load) current is
equal to 10 times the reading on the AC meter. Therefore, load current, IL = 3 x 10 = 30 A.
 

Range Extension of Voltmeter by Potential Transformer

 
The range of a moving-iron AC voltmeter is extended by connecting a high resistance
(multiplier) in series with it.
 
For ranges higher than 0 – 750 V, where power wasted in the multiplier would be excessive,
a 0 – 110 V moving-iron AC voltmeter is used in conjunction with a potential transformer as
shown in the figure.
 
The potential transformer is a step-down transformer i.e. number of primary turns is more
than the secondary turns. The primary of the transformer is connected across the load across
which voltage is to be measured. The AC voltmeter is connected across the secondary.
 
Since in figure, the potential transformer ratio is 20:1, the load voltage is equal to 20 times
the reading on the AC voltmeter.
Load voltage, VL = 100 x 20 = 2000 V
THE CONCEPT OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Defined simply, a Wheatstone Bridge is an electric circuit that is used to measure the
electrical resistance of a circuit. The circuit is set out by balancing two legs of a bridge
circuit. Out of the two, one of the legs is an unknown component which was invented by
Samuel Hunter Christie in the year 1833 and later, it improved and popularized by Sir
Charles Wheatstone in the year 1843.

Nowadays, technological progress has allowed us to make various measurements through

sophisticated tools and machines. However, even today, the wheat bridge remains an
authentic way to measure electric resistance, down to the closest milliohms as well.

The Principle behind the Wheatstone Bridge

The usual arrangement of the Wheat stone bridge circuit has four arms. The bridge circuit
where the arms are situated consist of electrical resistance. Out of these resistances, P and Q
are the fixed electrical resistances and these two arms are the ratio arms. Next, A
Galvanometer connects between the terminals B and D through a switch K2. The source of
voltage of this arrangement is connected to the terminals A and C through a switch, K1.

A variable resistor S is connected between point C and D. The potential at point D is altered
by adjusting the value of a variable resistor. If a variation in the electrical resistance value of
arm CD is brought, the value of current I2 will also vary as the voltage across both A and C is
fixed.

If we continue to adjust the variable resistance, a situation may come when the voltage drops
across the resistor S that is I2. Here, S becomes exactly equal to the voltage drop across
resistor Q that is I1. Q. So, the potential at point B becomes equal to the potential at point D
hence the potential difference between these two points is zero hence current through
galvanometer is nil. The deflection in the galvanometer is nil when the switch K2 is closed.

Applying Kirchoff’Law, in this condition,

P/Q = R/S

How is the Meter Bridge experiment carried out using the Wheatstone Principle?

The meter bridge experiment uses the wheat bridge experiment to demonstrate the resistance
of an unknown conductor or to make a comparison between two unknown resistors. Through
the above-stated equation, one can easily decipher the specific resistance of a given material

Conclusions of the wheat stone bridge principle are:

According to the Wheatstone-bridge principle, the resistance of length AB/resistance of

length BC = R / X

Let l be the length of wire between A and B and then (100 – l) is the length of wire between
B and C. Here, P = ρl / A. Since the wire has a uniform cross-section and ρ is constant. Its
resistance is proportional to the length. That is P ∝ l, and Q ∝ (100–l). So,

L / (100–l) = R / X

This is how to draw the values of X for different values of R and the mean value gives the
value of unknown resistance X.

The Concept of Potentiometer

A potentiometer is an electric device which is used to regulate EMF and internal resistance of
a given cell. This helps in providing a variable resistance and therefore, a variable potential
difference arising between two points in an electric circuit. It is basically a three-terminal
resistor device with an adjustable arm that increases or reduces the resistance in the loop.

A potentiometer is a passive electronic component. Potentiometers work by varying the

position of a sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a potentiometer, the entire input
voltage is applied across the whole length of the resistor, and the output voltage is the voltage
drop between the fixed and sliding contact as shown below

A potentiometer has the two terminals of the input source fixed to the end of the resistor. To
adjust the output voltage the sliding contact gets moved along the resistor on the output side.

This is different to a rheostat, where here one end is fixed and the sliding terminal is
connected to the circuit, as shown below.

This is a very basic instrument used for comparing the emf of two cells and for calibrating
ammeter, voltmeter, and watt-meter. The basic working principle of potentiometer is quite
simple. Suppose we have connected two batteries in parallel through a galvanometer. The
negative battery terminals are connected together and positive battery terminals are also
connected together through a galvanometer as shown in the figure below.

Here, if the electric potential of both battery cells is exactly same, there is no circulating
current in the circuit and hence the galvanometer shows null deflection. The working
principle of potentiometer depends upon this phenomenon.
Now let’s think about another circuit, where a battery is connected across a resistor via a
switch and a rheostat as shown in the figure below.

The resistor has the uniform electrical resistance per unit length throughout its length.
Hence, voltage drop per unit length of the resistor is equal throughout its length. Suppose, by
adjusting the rheostat we get v volt voltage drop appearing per unit length of the resistor.

Now, the positive terminal of a standard cell is connected to point A on the resistor and
negative terminal of the same is connected with a galvanometer. The other end of the
galvanometer is in contact with the resistor via a sliding contact as shown in the figure above.
By adjusting this sliding end, a point like B is found where there is no current through the
galvanometer, hence no deflection in the galvanometer.

That means, emf of the standard cell is just balanced by the voltage appearing in the resistor
across point A and B. Now if the distance between point A and B is L, then we can write emf
of standard cell E = Lv volt.
This is how a potentiometer measures the voltage between two points (here between A and
B) without taking any current component from the circuit. This is the specialty of a
potentiometer, it can measure voltage most accurately.

Wheatstone Bridge Theory

The general arrangement of Wheatstone bridge circuit is shown in the figure below. It is a
four-arms bridge circuit where arm AB, BC, CD and AD are consisting of electrical
resistances P, Q, S and R respectively.

Among these resistances P and Q are known fixed electrical resistances and these two arms
are referred as ratio arms. An accurate and sensitive Galvanometer is connected between the
terminals B and D through a switch S2.

The voltage source of this Wheatstone bridge is connected to the terminals A and C via a
switch S1 as shown. A variable resistor S is connected between point C and D. The potential
at point D can be varied by adjusting the value of variable resistor. Suppose current I1 and
current I2 are flowing through the paths ABC and ADC respectively.

If we vary the electrical resistance value of arm CD the value of current I2 will also be varied
as the voltage across A and C is fixed. If we continue to adjust the variable resistance one
situation may come when voltage drop across the resistor S that is I2. S is becoming exactly
equal to voltage drop across resistor Q that is I1.Q. Thus, the potential at point B becomes
equal to the potential at point D hence potential difference between these two points is zero
hence current through galvanometer is nil. Then the deflection in the galvanometer is nil
when the switch S2 is closed.

Now, from Wheatstone bridge circuit

and
Now potential of point B in respect of point C is nothing but the voltage drop across the
resistor Q and this is

Again potential of point D in respect of point C is nothing but the voltage drop across the
resistor S and this is

Equating, equations (i) and (ii) we get,

Solved Examples for You

Question: Describe how a potentiometer works in an arrangement.

Answer: A potentiometer consists of a uniform wire AB of manganin or constantan that has a

length of usually 10 m. it is kept stretched between copper stripes that are fixed on a wooden
board by the side of a metre scale. The wire is then divided into ten segments each of 1 m
length.

These segments join in series through metal strips between points A and B. A steady current
is maintained in the wire AB by a constant source of EMF Eo, called driver cell, that
connects between A and B through a rheostat. A jockey slides over the potentiometer wire
which makes contact with the wire and cell.
 Potentiometer (Source: Wikimedia)

Thus we can say that the potential difference across any portion of the potential of the
potentiometer wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion provided the current is
uniform.