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Introduction
Electric measuring instruments and meters are used to indicate directly the value of current, voltage,
power or energy.
In this lesson, we will consider an electromechanical meter (input is as an electrical signal results
mechanical force or torque as an output) that can be connected with additional suitable components
in order to act as an ammeters and a voltmeter.
1. Those which gives the value of the quantity to be measured in terms of the constant of the
instruments and their deflection only.
2. No calibration or comparison required.
Example
Tangent Galvanometer (gives the value of the current as the tangent of the deflection)
1. Those which the value of electrical quantity to be measured can be determined by deflection
only.
2. Pre-calibrated with an absolute instrument.
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
All measuring instruments depend on one of many physical effects of electrical current or potential such
as:
1. Magnetic Effect
2. Electrodynamic Effect
3. Electromagnetic Effect
4. Thermal Effect
5. Chemical Effect
6. Electrostatic Effect
Classification Of Instruments
1. Indicating instruments
Indicates instantaneous value of electrical quantity being measured at the time being
measured.
2. Recording instruments
Indicates reading at the same time gives a continuous record of the variation of such
quantity over a selected period of time.
ECG recorder
3. Integrating instruments
Measures the total quantity or the total amount of electrical energy supplied to a circuit in
a given time. (e.g kWh)
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
This torque must act in the opposite sense to the deflecting torque.
The movement will take up an equilibrium or definite position when the deflecting and
controlling torque are equal in magnitude.
Spiral springs or gravity usually provides the controlling torque.
3. Damping torque:
Damping force increases with the angular velocity of the moving system, so that its effect is
greatest when the rotation is rapid and zero when the system rotation is zero.
This is provided by :
i) air friction ii) fluid friction iii) eddy current.
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
In moving –iron instruments the movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped
soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in
coil.
The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small piece of magnetically
‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current.
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
This instrument consists of a few soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to the spindle (D), pivoted in
jeweled bearings.
The spindle (D) also carries a pointer (P), a balance weight (W 1), a controlling weight (W2) and a
damping piston(E), which moves in a curved fixed cylinder (F).
The special shape of the moving-iron discs is for obtaining a scale of suitable form.
Attraction Type
• Moving element : a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod
• Coil : produce the magnetic field and also to magnetize the iron pieces.
• Fixed vane or rod : used to magnetize with the opposite polarity.
• Control torque : is provided by spring or weight (gravity)
• Damping torque : provided by an air chamber.
• Deflecting torque : produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Torque Expressions
And than
So that
For a given moving-iron instrument the ampere-turns necessary to produce full-scale deflection are
constant. One can alter the range of ammeters by providing a shunt coil with the moving coil.
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Voltmeter range may be altered connecting a resistance in series with the coil. Hence the same coil
winding specification may be employed for a number of ranges. Let us consider a high resistance Rse
is connected in series with the moving coil and it is shown below.
V R
v ( )
= 1+
r
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Advantages:
• The instruments are suitable for use in a.c and d.c circuits.
• The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the moving parts.
• The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
• Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
• Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
Errors:
i. Errors due to temperature variation.
ii. Errors due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in moving-iron instruments.
iii. Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force produced by the coil. Efficient
magnetic screening is essential to reduce this effect.
iv. Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the coil and also changes the
eddy currents induced in neighboring metal.
v. Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current due to non-linear
characteristics of iron material.
Example
A Moving-iron instrument require 400 ampere-turns to give full scale deflection. Calculate
Solution
Full scale deflection (f.s.d) = 400 = I f.s.d × Number of turns
Example
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
The coil of a 250 V moving iron voltmeter has a resistance of 5000 Ω and an inductance of 1
Henry. The current taken by the instrument when placed on 250 V dc supply is 0.05 A.
Determine the percentage error when the instrument is placed on 250 V a.c. supply at 100 Hz.
Solution
Total ohmic resistance = 250/0.05 = 5000 Ω
Reactance of the coil = 2πfL = 2π×100×1 = 628 Ω
2 2
Coil impedance = √ 5000 +628 =5040 Ω
Voltage reading on a.c. = 250×5000/5040 = 248 V
Error = -2 V
Percentage error = -2 × 100 (f.s.d) / 250 = - 0.806 %
= 0.806
Exercise Questions
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
The general theory of moving-coil instruments may be dealt with considering a rectangular coil of N
turns, free to rotate about a vertical axis.
The springs will also resist the movement of coil when there is current through coil.
Principle of operation
It has been mentioned that the interaction between the induced field and the field produced by the
permanent magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the coil. The deflecting
torque produced is described below in mathematical form:
Deflecting Torque:
If the coil is carrying a current of i amp , the force on a coil side = BilN (newton, N).
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Controlling Torque:
The value of control torque depends on the mechanical design of the control device. For spiral
springs and strip suspensions, the controlling torque is directly proportional to the angle of deflection
of the coil.
Damping Torque:
Electromagnetic damping is caused by the induced effects in the moving coil as it rotates in magnetic
field, provided the coil forms part of closed electric circuit.
dθ
Damping torque = D1 (Nm) where D1 = damping constant
dt
An ammeter is required to measure the current in a circuit and it therefore connected in series with
the components carrying the current.
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Multi-range Voltmeter:
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Advantages:
• The scale is uniformly divided
• The power consumption can be made very low.
• The torque-weight ratio can be made high with a view to achieve high accuracy.
• A single instrument can be used for multi range ammeters and voltmeters.
• Error due to stray magnetic field is very small.
Limitations:
• They are suitable for direct current only.
• The instrument cost is high.
• Variation of magnet strength with time.
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
• Proper pivoting and balancing weight may reduce the frictional error.
• Suitable aging can reduce the magnetic decay.
• Use of resistance in series (swamping resistance)
Exercise Questions
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Definition :
Bridges are electrical circuits for performing null measurements on resistances in DC and
general impedances in AC.
Bridge circuit are used to convert impedance variations into voltage variations.
Two conditions
to be
considered:
Balance
Condition
Ig = 0
Unbalance
Condition
Ig ≠ 0
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Derivation
a
I1 I2
d
Vcb = Vdb I3R3 = I4R4
c
I3 I4
Vca = Vda I1R1 = I2R2
b
Therefore,
I 1 = I 3 ; I2 = I4
Using voltage divider, If R4 is unknown resistor
R2 R3 R R
R4 Rx 2 3
R1 R1
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Chapter 1 EEE 1104 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND TRANSMISSION LINE
Exercise
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