Unit II - Measurement of Voltage and Current.

Essentials of Measuring Instruments:

The moving system is subjected to the following three torques :

1. A deflecting (or operating) torque
2. A controlling (or restoring) torque
3. A damping torque.

Deflecting Torque
The deflecting or operating torque (Td) is produced by utilizing effects of electric current such as
magnetic, electrostatic, electrodynamic, thermal or inductive etc. The actual method of torque
production depends on the type of instrument. This deflecting torque causes the moving system
(and hence the pointer attached to it) to move from its ‘zero’ position i.e. its position when the
instrument is disconnected from the supply.

Controlling Torque
The deflection of the moving system would be indefinite if there were no controlling or restoring

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torque. This torque oppose the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of the moving
system. The pointer is brought to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are equal.
The deflecting torque ensures that currents of different magnitudes shall produce deflections of
the moving system in proportion to their size. Without such at torque, the pointer would swing
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over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of the current to be
measured. Moreover, in the absence of a restoring torque, the pointer once deflected, would not
return to its zero position on removing the current. The controlling or restoring or balancing
torque in indicating instruments is obtained either by a spring or by gravity.
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Damping Torque:
A damping force is one which acts on the moving system of the instrument only when it is
moving and always opposes its motion. Such stabilizing or damping force is necessary to bring
the pointer to rest quickly, otherwise due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer will
oscillate about its final deflected position for quite some time before coming to rest in the steady
position. The degree of damping should be adjusted to a value which is sufficient to enable the
pointer to rise quickly to its deflected position without overshooting. In that case, the instrument
is said to be dead-beat. Any increase of damping above this limit i.e. overdamping will make the
instruments slow and lethargic. The damping force can be produced by (i) air frictions (ii) eddy
currents and (iii) fluid friction.

Explain and enlist the different torques in a measuring system:

Function of Deflecting Torque:
To produce deflection proportional to the quantity being measured.

Function of Controlling Torque:

1) To restrict the motion of pointer / spindle and stop the pointer at the relevant position to get
correct reading.
2) To bring back pointer to zero position when the quantity under measurement is removed.

Function of Damping Torque:

1) To stop pointer / spindle at the final steady state position.
2) Bring the pointer to stand still quickly.
3) Minimizes the oscillations about final reading position.
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Controlling Torque Types:
Spring Control
A hair-spring, usually of phosphorbronze, is attached to the moving system of the instrument as
shown in  Fig below.  With the deflection of the pointer,  the spring is twisted in the
opposite  direction. This twist in the spring  produces restoring torque which is  directly
proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving system. The pointer comes to a position of
rest (or equilibrium) when the deflecting torque (Td) and controlling torque (Tc) are equal

For spring control Tc ∝ θ

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Gravity Control
Gravity control is obtained by attaching a small adjustable weight to some part of the moving
system such that the two exert torques in the opposite directions. The usual arrangements is
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shown in
Fig.(a).

It is seen from Fig. (b) that the controlling or restoring torque is proportional to the sine of the
angle of deflection i.e.
Tc ∝ sin θ

Air Friction Damping :

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Eddy Current Damping:

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Permanent Magnet Type Instruments
The operation of a permanent-magnet moving-coil type instrument is be based upon the
principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted upon by
a force
which tends to move it to one side and out of the field.
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Construction
As its name indicates, the instrument consists of a permanent magnet and a rectangular coil of
many turns wound on a light aluminium or copper former inside which is an iron core as shown
in fig below.

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The powerfull U-shaped permanent magnet is made of Alnico and has soft-iron end-pole pieces
which are bored out cylindrically. Between the magnetic poles is fixed a soft iron cylinder whose
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function is 
(i) to make the field radial and uniform.
(ii) to decrease the reluctance of the air path between the poles and hence increase the magnetic
flux. Surrounding the core is a rectangular coil of many turns wound on a light aluminium frame
which is supported by delicate bearings and to which is attached a light pointer. The aluminium
frame not only provides support for the coil but also provides damping by eddy currents induced
in it.
The sides of the coil are free to move in the two airgaps between the poles and core. 
Control of the coil movement is affected by two phosphor-bronze hair springs, one above and
one below, which additionally serve the purpose of lending the current in and out of the coil. The
two springs are spiralled in opposite directions in order to neutralize the effects of temperature
changes

Deflecting Torque
When current is passed through the coil, force acts upon its both sides which produce a
deflecting torque as shown in Fig. below:

B = flux density in Wb/m^2

l = length or depth of the coil in metre

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b = breadth of coil in metre
N = number of turns in the coil

If 'i' ampere is the current passing through the coil, then the magnitude of the force experienced
by each of its sides is = Bil newton
For N turns, the force on each side of the coil is = NBil newton
∴ deflecting torque Td = force × perpendicular distance
= NBil × b = NBi(I × b) = NBiA  N-m
where A is the face area of the coil.
It is seen that if B is constant, then Td is proportional to the current passing through the coil i.e.
Td ∝ Current (I)

Such instruments are invariable spring-controlled so that Tc ∝ deflection θ.

Since at the final deflected position, Td = Tc ∴ θ ∝I
Hence, such instruments have uniform scales. Damping is electromagnetic i.e. by eddy currents
induced in the metal frame over which the coil is wound. Since the frame moves in an intense
magnetic field, the induced eddy currents are large and damping is very effective

Advantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments 

1. Very small power is required for its operation. Hence, power consumption is very low.  
2. Torque to weight ratio of moving system is high.  
3. Scale is uniform and long scale is obtained.  
4. It can be used as a ammeter or voltmeter only by using external resistances.  
5. It is free from hysteresis error.  

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6. Error due to stray magnetic field is negligible.  
7. Eddy current damping is used without any extra damping mechanism.  
8. Strong operating magnetic field due to permanent magnet and iron core arrangement.  
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Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments:  
1. With time the strength of permanent magnets reduces, causing error in reading.  
2. Thermoelectric e.m.f. may cause errors when it is used with shunts.  
3. Costly.  
4. Can be used on D.C. only and not on A.C. This is because the direction of magnetic field
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due    to permanent magnet is fixed. And if the direction of current in the coil is A.C. then
the  force produced will be in positive half cycle in one direction and due to negative half cycle
in  the other direction. Hence the pointer will oscillate and will not deflect. 
5. Delicate construction, so to be used with due care.

Actual construction of PMMC:

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Moving Iron Instrument

There are two basic forms of these instruments i.e. the attraction type and the repulsion type.
The operation of the attraction type depends on the attraction of a single piece of soft iron into a
magnetic field and that of repulsion type depends on the repulsion of two adjacent pieces of
iron magnetised  by the same magnetic field. For both types of these instruments, the necessary
magnetic field is produced by the ampere-turns of a current-carrying coil. In case the instrument
is to be used as an ammeter, the coil has comparatively fewer turns of thick wire so that the
ammeter has low resistance because it is connected in series with the circuit. In case it is to be
used as a voltmeter, the coil has high impedance so as to draw as small a current as possible
since it is connected in parallel with the circuit. As the current through the coil is small, it has
large number of turns in order to produce sufficient ampere-turns.

(i) Attraction Type: 

It consists of a fixed coil C of insulated copper wound on the bobbin and    an iron disc D. The
current to be measured (or a current proportional to the voltage to be    measured) is passed
through a coil of wire, the number of turns of which depends upon  the current passing through
it. A certain number of ampere turns are required for the  operation of the instrument and this
number can be made up by having few turns and  large current or vice versa depending upon
whether it is a ammeter or voltmeter. In this  form of instrument, a small piece of iron is drawn

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into the core of the coil when the current  flows.  Whatever be the direction of current in the coil,
the magnetisation of the moving iron is    always such that it will get attracted. Thus the
instruments are unpolarized instruments  i.e. they are independent of the direction in which the
current passes, hence it can be used  on AC or DC. The principle of moving iron attraction type
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instruments is represented in  Fig below:
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In the instrument shown, the gravity control is used which was previously used, but nowa-days
spring control is used. The damping method used is air friction damping. In this    type, the
moving iron, which is made of high permeability steel (µ metal) is essentially    pivoted and
consists of thin disc. The shape of the disc is such that a suitably divided scale  is obtained. The
stray field (field due to neighbouring currents) usually influence the    readings, hence magnetic
shielding is required.

(b) Repulsion Type: 

The essential parts of a moving iron, repulsion type instrument are shown in Fig. below
Insulated    copper wire is wound around a bobbin in the form of a coil. The size of wire and
number of  turns depends upon the ampere turns required and the magnitude of current to be
measured.  Inside the space of bobbin (coil), two pieces of soft iron are placed face to face. One

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piece is    fixed on the wall of bobbin which is called as fixed iron and the other is fixed to the
spindle  which is free to move and called as moving iron.  
When a current is passed through the coil, a magnetic field is produced within the hollow
space.    The two iron pieces are within the field. They are magnetised in the same direction of
polarity,  irrespective of direction of current in the coil. Hence, the two iron pieces will repel each
other.  Hence, a deflecting torque is produced and moving iron is deflected.  
The deflection is indicated by the pointer attached to the spindle. Generally, a spring is used
to    produce controlling torque. Air friction damping is adopted to produce damping torque in
such  type of instruments.

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The deflecting torque for MI instruments is given by:
Td ∝ Current (I)^2
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The controlling torque for MI instruments is given by:
Tc ∝ sin θ (For Gravity Control)
Tc ∝  θ (For Spring Control)
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For Steady state operation

Td=Tc

Thus
sin θ ∝ I^2 (For Gravity Control)
θ ∝ I^2 (For Spring Control)

Advantages of Moving Iron Instruments: 

1. Since there is no current lead to the moving part of the instrument, it is quite rhobust and  can
be operated in vertical/horizontal position. 
2. The instrument can be used on both a.c. as well as d.c. system. Give reliable service and  are
capable of giving an accuracy within the limits of both precision and industrial grades.  
3. Have high operating torque.  
4. Suitable for low frequency and high power circuits.  
5. As stationary parts and moving parts are simple, their cost is cheapest.  

Disadvantages:  
1. The readings shown by the meter get affected due to:  
(i) Increase in resistance of coil.  
(ii) Decrease in permeability and  
(iii) Decrease in stiffness of spring, which are the effects due to increase in temperature.
2. Error is caused due to hysteresis in the iron.  
3. The readings are affected due to stray fields.  
4. The scale is not uniform because the deflection θ ∝ I^2 (crowded at the beginning).  
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5. The instrument readings are true for only one frequency for which it has been designed.

Difference between attraction type and repulsion type

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PMMC instrument is not suitable to measure AC. Why?

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Ans: PMMC Instrument is Not Suitable to Measure AC: PMMC type instrument uses two
permanent magnets in order to create stationary magnetic field. These types of instruments are
used only for measurement of the DC quantities. If we use this instrument on AC, whenever the
direction of current is reversed during negative half cycle, the direction of torque will also be
reversed. This results in average value of torque as zero. The pointer will not deflect due to high
frequency from its mean position showing zero reading. However it can measure the direct
current very accurately.

State the reason for:

i) PMMC instrument has linear scale.
ii) MI instrument has non-linear scale.
Ans:
i) PMMC Instrument has Linear Scale: As the angular deflection of PMMC instrument is
proportional to operating current, the PMMC instrument scale is linear / uniform.
ii) MI instrument has non-linear scale:
The deflection of needle of moving iron instrument is given in terms of rms value of voltage or
current. As the angular deflection of Moving Iron Instrument is proportional to square of
operating current, the instrument has basically square law response. Due to this square law
response, the Moving Iron instrument scale is nonlinear / non-uniform

PMMC Vs MI

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Dynamometer Type Instruments

An electrodynamic instrument is a moving-coil instrument in which the operating field is

produced, not by a permanent magnet but by another fixed coil. This instrument can be used
either as an
ammeter or a voltmeter but is generally used as a wattmeter.

• In dynamometer instruments, the permanent magnet used in moving coil permanent

magnet    instruments is replaced by either one or two fixed coils which carry the current to be
measured  (or current proportional to voltage to be measured) and which are connected either in
series or    in parallel with the moving coil. The coils are usually air cored, the use of iron being
usually  avoided in such instruments owing to its introduction of hysteresis and eddy current and
other  errors. 
• When the instrument is used for A.C. measurements, the general arrangement is shown in  Fig
below

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Fig. below shows the connections of a dynamometer, ammeter 

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Low Current Meter                                                         High Current Meter
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Fig. below shows the connections of a dynamometer, voltmeter. 
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  • The torque of the instrument is dependent upon the strengths of the magnetic fields of
both    fixed and moving coils i.e. in an ammeter the torque is roughly proportional to the
current  squared and in voltmeter to the voltage squared.

Dynamometer instruments can thus be used in alternating current circuits for which square
law    is essential. Two hair springs are used for the control and as leads to the moving coil.
Damping  is often by air friction or enclosed vane. Although in some cases eddy current damping
by an  aluminium disc rotating in a permanent magnet field is used.

Advantages:  

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1. It is free from hysteresis and eddy current errors, but is used only as voltmeter or ammeter  for
precision measurements. It is generally used as a wattmeter.  
2. It can be used for D.C. as well as A.C. measurements.  
3. It has a fairly high degree of accuracy.  

Disadvantages:  •
 As compared to permanent magnet instruments, it has the following disadvantages:  
1. As there is no iron core in the fixed coils, the field intensity is very weak. Therefore, to  obtain
necessary deflecting torque, large number of ampere turns must be used on moving  coil. This
makes the moving element heavy and the power loss is high. The torque to weight  ratio is small
and frictional error is high.  
2. Deflecting torque being proportional to square of voltage or current, the scale is
not  uniform.  
3. It is comparatively costly.  
4. Operates with weak magnetic field because the coils are air cored.

Basic Ammeter
Basic ammeter has thick copper winding of few turns and there is a shunt of low
resistance  connected across this coil. The basic circuit of ammeter is as shown below.  
Ra: Resistance of coil of ammeter  
Rsh: Resistance shunted across the ammeter  coil  
Ammeter is connected in series with the  circuit of which current is to be measured as  shown in
Fig. below

Advantages of D.C. Ammeter:  

1. Scale uniform.  
2. Low power consumption.    
3. Range can be changed.  
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4. High accuracy.  

Disadvantages of D.C. Ammeter:  

1. Costly.  
2. Not used on AC.  
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Ammeter Range Extension:

An Ammeter's range can be extended with the help of a low resistance shunt as shown in Fig.
below. This shunt provides a bypath for extra current because it is connected across (i.e. in
parallel with) the instrument. These shunted instruments can be made to record currents many
times greater than their normal full-scale deflection currents. The ratio of maximum current (with
shunt) to the full-scale deflection current (without shunt) is known as the ‘multiplying power’ or
‘multiplying factor’ of the shunt

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Range extension can be done using the following means:

1. By Using Individual Shunts:  

As shown in the following figure, separate shunt is used for each range (such 4-shunts
are  shown).

The respective shunts can be connected in parallel to the ammeter resistance Rs by

selector  switch 'S'.

2. Universal Shunts:  
In such case, Rs is the shunt resistance having tappings and desired tapping can be selected
by    moving the selector as shown in the following figure.    Tappings 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ……    Selecting

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tapping desired range of meter is selected.

Voltmeter Range Extension:

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Multipliers can be classified into two categories:

    

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Loading Effect:  

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In many measurement techniques the sensor or detector utilizes the energy of the medium,  thus
altering slightly the parameters to be measured.  
Voltmeter has loading effect on the circuit. A well calibrated voltmeter may give a
misleading    voltage reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. But gives a
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dependable  reading when connected across a low resistance circuit.

Corrective Measures:  
Loading effect can be avoided by using voltmeter of high value resistance when measuring
a  low resistance by ammeter voltmeter method.   
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Loading effect should be considered while planning any measurement, and corrections
should  be made.

Voltmeter Sensitivity

AC Voltmeter (Rectifier type)

Normal DC voltmeter can be used on AC supply by introducing a rectifier circuit connecting
across  AC supply. 
Rectifier unit converts AC into DC across which PMMC instrument can be connected.  
PMMC instrument is highly sensitive than other types. and is preferred where accurate readings
are required
Rectifier instruments are suitable for measurements on communication circuits and also for
low  voltage light current system.

Half Wave Rectification System:

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Input is AC. A diode which serves as half-wave rectifier is connected to the supply through
a  multiplier resistance (Rs) and DC is available to the PMMC voltmeter.  
Rm - meter resistance and Rs - multiplier resistance.  
When DC voltage V is applied to the meter the current through the meter is 
Im =  Vm  / (Rm + Rs) which  produces full-scale deflection.  
Because of the inertia of moving parts, PMMC indicates a deflection corresponding to
average  value of current which is dependent upon the average value of the applied voltage.  
The sensitivity of a half-wave rectifier instrument is 0.45 times its sensitivity at d.c.

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The sensitivity of a full-wave rectifier type of instruments with a sinusoidal a.c. as an input is  90%
of that with d.c. voltage of the same magnitude. The sensitivity of a full-wave rectifier    type of
instrument is twice that of a half-wave rectifier type.

Ohm-meter

This meter directly measures the resistance with low accuracy. There is a wide field
of  applications for this instrument.  
An ohmmeter is useful for determining the approximate resistance of circuit components
such    as heater elements or machine field coils, measuring and sorting of resistors used in
electronic  circuits.
Ohm-meter can be classified into 2 types:

1. Series Ohm-meter
2. Shunt Ohm-meter

1. Series Ohm-Meter

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1. Shunt Ohm-Meter

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Clamp-on Type or Portable Type CTs 

By the use of a construction with a suitably split and hinged core, upon which the secondary
winding is wound, it is possible to measure the current in a heavy-current conductor or bus-bar

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without breaking the current circuit. The split core of the CT along with the secondary winding is
simply clamped around the main conductor, which acts as the primary winding of the CT. When
used with range selectable shunts and a calibrated ammeter, clamp on type CTs can be very
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conveniently used for direct and quick measurement of current. Fig below shows photograph of
such a clamp-on type CT.
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The CT consists of a split core. The secondary winding of    which is connected to a rectifier
type  moving coil instrument. 
The primary    becomes the conductor through which    current flowing is to be measured.
The  slitted core gets aligned (jointed) by the  force of a spring tension.  
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It consists of a selector switch so that  secondary turns are changed which  ultimately changes
the range of the current  on the dial. For measuring the current, the  core is opened by pressing
trigger shown  and then clipped over the conductor  carrying current.
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The flow of current in the wire will produce an alternating magnetic flux. This flux thus flows
through the CT core and based on transformer action, the secondary current is obtained.
The dial is however calibrated to read the  current in the main wire directly.
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