Electrical Indicating Instruments

Introduction

Electrical Measuring Instruments

Classification

Absolute instruments
It measures the magnitude of the quantity in terms of the constants

of the instruments.

Example: -A tangent galvanometer, measures current in terms of

the tangent of the angle of deflection produced by the current,

radius & no. of turns of the galvanometer coil and the horizontal

component of the earth’s magnetic field.

Secondary instruments: -

These have to be calibrated by comparison with an absolute

instrument.

Classification of Secondary Instrument

1. Indicating Instruments- Voltmeter, Ammeter & Wattmeter

2. Recording instruments- X-Y plotter, ECG (Electro-Cardio-

Gram).

3. Integrating instruments- Ampere-hour meter, watt-hour (energy)

meter.

Electrical indicating instruments are classified according to both the

quantity measured by the instrument and the principle of operation.

Three general principles of operation are available: (i)

electromagnetic, which utilizes the magnetic effects of electric

currents; (ii) electrostatic, which utilizes the forces between

electrically charged conductors; (iii) electro-thermic, which utilizes

the heating effect.

Electric indicating instruments are used to indicate directly the

value of current, voltage, power or energy. An electromechanical

meter (input is as an electrical signal results mechanical force or

torque as an output) that can be connected with additional suitable

components in order to act as an ammeter and a voltmeter. The

most common analog instrument or meter is the permanent magnet

moving coil instrument and it is used for measuring a dc current or

voltage of an electric circuit. On the other hand, there is moving

iron instrument and is used to indicate alternating current or

voltage of an electric circuit.

Forces/torques required in an Indicating Instruments

Deflecting force / torque causes the pointer to move from its zero

position and to produce necessary deflection when a current flow in

the coil. The current in the coil sets up a magnetic field that

interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The

value of deflecting force / torque must depend on the electrical

signal to be measured.

Controlling force / torque is provided by spiral springs.

- The springs retain the coil and pointer at their zero position when

no current is flowing in the coil.

- When current flows in the coil, the springs wind up as the coil

rotates, and the force they exert on the coil increases with angular
deflection.

- The coil and pointer stop rotating when the controlling force

becomes equal to the deflecting force.

- The spring material must be nonmagnetic to avoid any magnetic

field influence on the controlling force.

Damping force / torque is required to act in a direction opposite to

the movement of the moving system. This brings the moving system

to rest at the deflected position reasonably quickly without any

oscillation or very small oscillation. This is provided by i) air friction

ii) fluid friction iii) eddycurrent.

Damping force / torque shall not influence the steady state deflection

produced by a given deflecting force or torque. Damping force

increases with the angular velocity of the moving system, so that its

effect is greatest when the rotation is rapid and zero when the

system rotation is zero.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments

A moving coil instrument consists basically of a permanent magnet

to provide a magnetic field and a reactangular coil in between the

air-gap of the magnet and is free to rotate around its vertical axis.

When a current is passed through the coil windings, a torque is

developed on the coil by the interaction of the magnetic field and the

field set up by the current in the coil. The aluminum pointer

attached to rotating coil and the pointer moves around the

calibrated scale indicates the deflection of the coil.

The torque produced by the coil is measured by the deflection it

gives against the opposing torque of the control springs. These

control springs are not only supplying a restoring (controlling)

torque but also serve to conduct current to and from the coil. With

the use of control springs, the coil will return to its initial position

when no current is flowing though the coil. The springs will also

resist the movement of coil when there is current through coil.

When the developing force between the magnetic fields is exactly

equal to the force of the springs, the coil rotation will stop.

Principle of Operation

The interaction between the induced field and the field produced by

the permanent magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in

rotation of the coil. The deflecting torque produced is described

below in mathematical form with reference to figure below

B = air gap flux density in wb/m2

L = effective length of the coil inside in the air gap

N = no. of turns of the coil

I = current flowing through the coil in Amp.

Deflecting force = F = NBLI Nw

Deflecting torque = TD = F 2r

= NB [L 2r] I Nw – m

= NBAI Nw – m

or TD = flux density in the air gap × area of the coil × Ampere turn
on coil = GI,

where G = Constant = NB {L 2r} Nw – m /A = NBA Nw – m /A

 TD  I i.e., current

The above equation is valid while the soft iron core is cylindrical

(gives radial field) and the air gap between the coil and pole faces of

the permanent magnet is uniform. This result the flux density B is

constant and the torque is proportional to the coil current.

Control (restoring) torque is usually supplied by spiral springs and

is given by

TC = KS θ

It is directly proportional to the angular deflection (θ) of the coil

from its zero position.

At equilibrium TC  TD i.e., when the pointer attains steady
position

NBA
K S  NBAI or   I
KS

  BI
If B has the same value at any position around the air gap, the

angular deflection is directly proportional to the current in the

moving coil.

θαI
Actually, the field is almost never completely uniform around the air

gap. The field may be expected to fall off in strength toward the

ends of the air gap as a result of the fringing effect.

In addition, in-homogeneities in the magnet pole pieces or core will

result in small local irregularities of the field. These departures from

uniformity are usually small so that we are accustomed to think of

the scale of a dc instrument as being uniform.

Damping Torque

Damping torque in the instrument is obtained by eddy current set

up in the metal former on which the working coil is wound. The

magnitude of the damping torque is a function of the resistance of

the damping former. Damping is controlled in design by the proper

choice of the thickness, width and material of the former.

Aluminum, brass and copper have all been used for the construction

of damping frames.

Damping Force in PMMC instrument due to Aluminum former

A PMMC movement may also be damped by a resistor connected in

parallel across the coil. When the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a

voltage is generated in the coil, which circulates a current through it

and the external resistance. This produces an opposing torque

(damping torque) that damps the motion.

Let the angular velocity of the coil is ω(t) = dθ /dt rad./sec. and let

the resistance of the coil circuit with turns N be RΩ. Then the linear

velocity of a coil side v(t) = r dθ / dt sec.

∴ E.m.f induced in each turn of the coil = 2NBLv = 2NBLr (dθ/dt)

volt (note both the sides of the coil having same e.m.f and they are

additive in nature).

∴ Induced current across turns of coil i = 2NBLr (dθ/dt)/R (R=

resistance of coil) = (G / R)dθ/dt Amp.

The damping force produced=NBLi Nw = NBL(G/R)dθ/dt Nw.

The damping torque = NBL(G/R)dθ/dt 2r Nw-m = (G2/R)dθ/dt Nw-

m.

= D dθ/dt Nw-m.

Note, G2/R is the damping constant for the induced currents in the

coil due to its motion.

Damping torque (for the former) =D1dθ/dt (Nm) where D1=damping

constant due to induced currents in the former. In addition to the

induced current damping, there will be a small damping torque due

to air friction. Air damping torque (D2dθ/dt) may be assumed to be

proportional to the angular velocity of the coil.

Equation of motion

The resulting torque in a coil or motion of a coil in a magnetic field

is due to the combined effect of deflecting torque (TD), controlling

torque (Ks), damping torque (Ddθ/dt) and it is expressed

mathematically as

J(d2θ/dt2) + Ddθ/dt + Ksθ = GI

Here J is the moment of inertia of the moving parts.

Remarks: When the moving system reached at steady state i.e., at

final deflected position, the controlling torque becomes equal and

opposite of the deflecting torque. The deflecting angle is directly

proportional to the current in the movable coil. For this reason, the

scale of the moving coil instrument is calibrated linearly.

Friction Torque

There is always some bearing friction present which opposes coil

motion.

The torque due to friction is not zero (owing to static friction) when

the coil is at rest. The friction torque depends on the weight of the

moving system, co-efficient of friction of the bearing material and on

the pivot pressure. This causes the instrument to have a pressure on

the bearing surface which appears to be ‘sticky’. It increases with

use. If the frictional torque is more, equilibrium of the moving

system depends upon the frictional torque to an appreciable extent.

On the other hand, if frictional torque is small its effect on deflection

becomes negligible. Low friction torque is obtained by careful

design of pivots and reduction in the weight of the moving system.

To reduce pressure on bearing surface to minimize friction, the tips

of the pivot is attached to the jewel by a very small surface area,

whose radius is of the order of 0.05mm. The ratio of the deflecting

torque to frictional torque is a measure of reliability of the

instrument indications and is the inherent quality of the design.

Torque/Weight Ratio of an Indicating Instrument

The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an

instrument is known as a torque/weight ratio. It indexes the

performance of the instrument. The higher value of torque/weight

ratio shows that the instrument has good performances.

T Full scaledeflectingtorque
W Total weight of themovingsystem should be as
high as possible.

Construction
Figure shows the parts of moving coil instrument.

Moving Coil

The moving coil is wound with many turns of enameled copper wire.

The coil is mounted on a rectangular aluminum former and is

supported by hardened steel pivots moving in jewels P. In the centre

is a cylindrical soft iron core to give a uniform radial field and to

reduce the air gap portion of the magnetic flux path. The coils move

freely in the field of a permanent magnet.

Construction of Magnet

The design of instrument magnets involves considerations of weight

and economy of space, expense of materials and manufacturing

procedures, permanence of magnetization and the hazards of

demagnetization encountered in service conditions, as well as the

field strength desired in the air gap. In most cases, the field strength

may be expected to be between 500 and 2500 lines/sq.cm in the air

gap 1.5 to 2.5mm long, depending on the size and type of

instrument.

Special alloy steels are used in the instrument magnet construction.

Tungsten steel has been popular since the early days of electrical

instrument. Cobalt steels, because of their higher coercivity, have

sometimes been employed where economy of weight and space is

important. Cobalt steel magnet has an air-gap flux density of the

order of 0.1 wb/m2. In recent years Alnico magnets have been used.

Ideally, an instrument magnet should have in its air gap high

magnetic flux density, which does not change with time or

temperature. Magnets with high coercivity are usually designed to

have large cross-section and its length should be small, whereas

materials with low coercivity and high permanence will have a large

length and small cross-section. Thus, the shape of the magnet is

always controlled by the type of the material used.

Long, thin magnets of horse-shoe shape are characteristic of

tungsten and chromium steels because of their high permanence and

low coercivity.

Development in the field of magnetic materials has been in the

direction of increased coercivity combined usually with reduced

permanence. Hence magnet made from newer materials (Alnico or

Alcomax) are generally shorter and of greater cross-section. Alnico

or Alcomax magnets operate with gap flux densities of upto

0.5wb/m2, thus enabling a considerable reduction in the size and

weight of the working part; they are of simple shape (because the

shaping of alnico magnets is very difficult in view of its brittle

nature).

Figure consists of horse-shoe shaped magnet of forged and hardened

tungsten steel with accurately machined soft-iron pole pieces bolted

to the inner faces of the magnet. A soft-iron cylinder fixed between

the pole pieces completes the magnetic circuit and provides a

uniform air gap in which the moving coil of the instrument rotates.

(a) (b) (c)

Horse-shoe shape Permanent Magnets
A variation of this horse-shoe shape Fig.(b) makes more efficient use

of the available space under the scale of the instrument and thus

permits a longer scale in the same size of the instrument.

By using hook-shaped pole pieces and a single air gap operating on

only one side of the moving coil, further scale expansion is possible.

The form of Fig.(c) permits the construction of a uniform scale over

about 120o of arc in contrast to the 90o to 100o scale of Fig.(b).

Double magnets (Fig.(d)) are sometimes used where a particularly

strong field is needed. Here Alnico or Alcomax magnets are used. It

will be noted that the magnet itself is very short and thick. C

represents soft iron-pole pieces and Y represents mild steel double-

yoke. This arrangement has the obvious advantage of being

relatively unaffected by the external magnetic fields.

D C C D

Fig.(d) Double Magnets

The use of cobalt steel, having a higher coercivity than tungsten

steel, permits the design of shorter, thicker magnets as shown in

Fig.(e). Since high cobalt content is required for best performance

and since this steel is considerably more expensive than tungsten or

chromium steels, it is generally employed where economy of space

and reduction of weight is important.

Fig.(e)Cobalt steel magnet

Fig.(f) shows magnetic system which is designated by the

manufacturer as a ‘core magnet’.

 Fig.(f) Core Magnet Construction

The magnet (M) itself serves as a core. The moving coil moves over a

magnet. The active sides of the moving coil (C) are located in the

uniform radial field between the soft-iron pole pieces (P) and the

steel yoke (Y). The return path for the magnetic flux is provided by

a soft iron ring or yoke (Y) concentric with the core and separated

from it by an air gap of uniform width, the distribution of the flux

being as indicated by dotted lines. This system ensures scale

uniformity over a deflection angle of 125o. The design is self-shielded

against external magnetic fields to a remarkable extent. The central

pole construction has the advantages: (a) reduced cost b) reduction

in overall size of the instrument (c) better shielding from external

magnetic fields.

Spiral Spring

In permanent magnet moving coil instruments the controlling

torque is produced by two spiral springs (T, T). The spiral springs

are made up of phosphor bronze strip. Silicon-bronze, platinum-

silver, platinum-iridium and German-silver may also be used. But

on account of fatigue or high temperature co-efficient, they are all

inferior to phosphor bronze.

Pivot and Jewel Bearing

The moving coil is mounted on a spindle made up of aluminum. The

two ends of the spindle are made conical to form a pivot (P, P) and

should be of hardened steel. These ends are fitted into conical holes

in jewels (J, J), which form bearings. Originally natural sapphire

was used but synthetic sapphire is also being used. The combination

of steel and sapphire gives lowest friction.

Methods of supporting the Moving System

Jeweled Bearing

-The pointed ends of shafts or pivots fastened to the coil are inserted

into cone-shaped cuts in jewel (sapphire or glass) bearings.

- Least possible friction

- The bearings may be broken by the shock of an instrument being

slammed down heavily upon a bench.

- Some jewel bearings are spring supported to absorb such shocks

more easily.
Suspension Method

-Much tougher than jeweled-bearing suspension.

- Two flat metal ribbons (phosphor bronze or platinum alloy) are

held under tension by springs to support the coil.

- Because of the springs, the metal ribbons behave like rubber under

tension.
- The ribbons also exert a controlling force as they twist, and they

can be used as electrical connections to the moving coil.

Power Requirements of P.M.M.C. Instruments

The current of moving coil and the voltage drop of the coil is fixed

automatically at 20mA and 50mV respectively. In micro-ammeters

and lower range milli-ammeters up to 20mA, the entire current to

be measured is sent through the moving coil. This is because the

instrument springs serve as a current lead to the moving coil, their

current carrying capacity limits the current which can be used in

the moving coil, i.e., the current which they will carry without

appreciable temperature rise as a result of I2R heating is the

effective limit of coil current.

The construction of an accurate instrument with a moving coil

greater than 20mA is impractical owing to the bulk and weight of

the coil that would be required. This is also required to prevent a

serious waste of power.

Moving coil ammeters and voltmeters are normally milli-ammeter

with the addition of a shunt and series resistance. D.C. ammeters

are normally designed to have a voltage drop of nearly 50mV to

100mV for full scale deflection. Most dc voltmeters are designed to

produce full scale deflection with a current of 20, 10, 5 or 1 mA.

Normally a value of 1mA is used.

Operation of PMMC Instrument as Ammeter

An ammeter is required to measure the current in a circuit and is

therefore connected in series with the components carrying the

current. It is essential that its total resistance shall be small, in order

that it may not introduce any serious volt-drop into the circuit and

2
 
to prevent waste of power I R . The construction of an accurate

instrument with a moving coil to carry currents greater than about

100mA is impracticable owing to its bulk and weight of the coil that

would be required. A moving coil ammeter therefore consists of a

milli-ammeter, together with a low resistance shunt.

 R
mA
Im

C1 S C2

I P1 Ish P2 I

P1, P2 Potential terminals of shunt (S)

C1, C2 Current terminals of shunt (S)

Moving Coil Ammeter

Let

R= Internal resistance of the moving coil including

leads.

RS = Resistance of the shunt S.

I= Maximum current to be measured.

Im= Full scale deflection current of movement = Ifs

Ish = Current passing through the shunt.

Then I = Im or Ifs + Ish

Also, Voltage drops across shunt = Voltage drops across instrument.

Hence, I Sh RS  I m R
  
I 1 
RS  m .R m .R
I
.R
ISh I I
m
 I 
 I 1
 m 
The ratio of the total current to the instrument current (I/Im) is

called ‘Multiplying Power of shunt’.

1
say m  I then RS  .R
Im m 1

m  1 R
or RS

General Requirements of Shunts

The general requirements for shunts are:

i) the temperature coefficients of shunt and instrument should

be low and as nearly as possible the same.
ii) the resistance of shunt shall not vary with time and this
ensured by careful annealing during manufacture.
iii) they should carry the current without excessive temperature
rise.
iv) they should have low thermo e.m.f.
The shunt material is usually manganin, in order that resistance

change due to change in temperature may be as small as possible.

Resistance changes may be due to change in ambient temperature

and in the case of heavy current shunts, due to self-heating. In order

to dissipate this heat, the manganin should be in the strip from. A

further advantage of manganin is its low thermo-electric e.m.f with

copper.

The shunt may be either within the case of the instrument or

external. The general arrangement for an instrument with an

internal shunt is shown in Figure below, mA being the milli-

ammeter, and S the shunt. The external shunt is shown in Figure

below. The ends of the manganin strips (M) are fixed in heavy

copper blocks B which carry terminals, one current terminal and

one potential terminal – the two current terminals being outer most.
 C1 C2
P1 P2

B B
M

External Shunt

Operation of PMMC Instrument as Voltmeter

A voltmeter is required to measure the potential difference between

two points in a circuit, this is usually affected by allowing the p.d. to

drive a small operating current through an instrument whose action

depends on current. It is essential that the instrument resistance

should be high in order that the distribution in the main circuit may

be affected as little as possible and so that excessive waste power can

 
2
be avoided V R .

In the case of moving coil instruments a combination of a milli-

ammeter and a series resistance (known a multiplier resistance)

forms a volt meter, the arrangement is shown in Figure below.

 Im

RS

v
mA R

Let Im = Ifs = Full scale deflection value of current.

R = internal resistance of the meter.

RS= series/multiplier resistance.

V = the voltage to be measured.

v = voltage across the meter movement for current Im.

v = ImR

V = Im(R+Rs)

Or, Rs = (V-ImR) / Im = V / Im –R
m = Multiplying factor for multiplier= V / v

= Im(R + Rs) / ImR

= 1+ (Rs / R)

Resistance of the multiplier = Rs = (m-1) R

Requirements of Multiplier

The general requirements are

i) their resistance should not change with time.

ii) the change in the resistance with temperature should be
small.
iii) they should be non-inductively wound for a.c. meter.

The resistance material used for multipliers is manganin and

constantan.

Errors in PMMC Instruments

Frictional Error

Errors here mainly arise from friction at the bearings and change of

temperature inside the instrument.

The bearing friction error will be minimized by properly designing

the pivot tip and the jewel cut of the bearing. Hardened steel tip of

the pivot fitted into suitably cut sapphire comprise the suitable

bearing arrangements.

Error due to change in Temperature

The temperature error arises due to the fact that the resistance of

the coil of the instrument gets changes due to the change in

temperature. As for the design of the coil, it is made up of copper,

having a temperature co-efficient of 0.004 ohm/ohm/oC.

Other temperature effects are:

a) Increase of temperature causes a decrease of strength of

the permanent magnet, although this effect should be

quite negligible in the case of Alnico and Alcomax

magnets.

b) The stiffness of the springs decreases with increase in

temperature.

c) The permeability of the core decreases with increase in

temperature, although the error due to this is usually

negligible.

Due to the increase in temperature, the reading or indication of the

instrument for a constant current would decrease by 0.04% per oC

rise in temperature.
In case the moving coil instrument is used as voltmeter a large series

resistance of negligible temperature co-efficient (made of material

like manganin) is used. If the resistance of the movement, i.e., coil of

a moving coil voltmeter has temperature coefficient 1 and the

coefficient of the series resistor is negligibly small as shown in Fig.,

then an increase in temperature toC causes an overall increase in

resistance Rα1t and the equivalent overall temperature coefficient is

α = α1 / (1 + Rs / R)

Thus, if the series circuit comprising of the moving coil and series

resistor were made up in the ratio of Rs: R ≈ 20:1, the overall

temperature coefficient of resistance of the combination would be

0.02%/oC. Thus, the voltmeter would be compensated for

temperature.

The position when the instrument current range is extended by

using shunt (moving coil instrument used as ammeter) is, however,

different. The main source of error in this case is due to relatively

larger change in the resistance of the copper moving coil as

compared to that of the manganin shunt. This happens because

copper has much higher resistance temperature co-efficient as

compared to manganin. To reduce error in this account, it is usual

to include in series with the moving coil a swamping resistance of

manganin so that the copper coil forms only a small fraction of the

total resistance comprising the coil and the additional swamping

resistance. The arrangement is shown in Figure below.

(a) Basic Ammeter circuit (b) Ammeter with shunt and swamping
resistance

Fig. Temperature Compensation Circuit for Ammeter

Example

A moving coil instrument whose resistance is 5 and whose working

current (for full scale deflection) is 0.015 amp is to be used with a

manganin shunt, to measure up to 100 amp. Calculate the error

caused by a 10oC rise in temperature;

a) When the whole of the 5 ohms is in the copper of the

instrument coil and leads,

b) When a 4ohm manganin swamping resistance is used with a

coil and leads of 1 ohm resistance.

Solution

Instrument current = 0.015 Amp

 Shunt current = 99.985 Amp.

Voltage drops across shunt = 0.075 Volt.

.075
 Shunt resistance   0.00075
99.985

Then shunt resistance at 10oC rise in temperature

 .00075 1  10  .00015

 .000751 .

In case (a) instrument resistance after 10oC rise in temperature

 5 1  10  .004   5.2
 (a)
Then the instrument current corresponding to 100 amp in the main

circuit

.000751
 100
5.200751
 0.014A

.014  .015
Error   100  3.8% = ((0.014-.015)/.014) x 100=-3.8%
.014

In case (b) after 10oC rise in temperature, true resistance of the

instrument circuit

 11  10  .004   4  10  .00015 

 5.046
 (b)
Instrument current corresponding to 100 amp

.00751
  100  0.0148 A
5.046751

.0148  .015
Error   0.8%
.0148

Thus, the effect of using manganin swamping resistance is to reduce

the % error for 10oC rise in temperature from 3.8% to 0.8%.

Variation of magnet strength with time

This also tends to be very small in the case of Alnico and Alcomax

magnets, but it is always important that the magnet should be

artificially ‘aged’ before the instrument is calibrated. The ageing is

affected by applying a small alternating magnetizing force to the

magnet. This somewhat reduces the strength of the magnet, but

leaves the residual magnetism of great permanence.

Advantages of PMMC Instruments

1. Very low power consumption.

2. High torque/high weight ratio of the moving system with

resulting high accuracy.

G
3. Perfectly linear scale. This follows from   I.
KS

4. Instruments free from hysteresis and eddy current effect.

5. Absence of effect of stray magnetic field (self shielded

movement). This is because the operating field is very strong,

and stray field can affect its magnitude but little.

6. Facility of extending scale up to 300o (cirscale instruments).

7. By means of shunts and voltage multipliers a single instrument

may be used for different ranges both of amperes and volts.

Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments

1. Can be used for D.C. only. The deflecting torque reverses if the

current reverses; this is expressed mathematically by the fact

that torque  current. Hence a reversal of sign of the latter

produces a reversal of sign of the torque.

2. Cost is higher than moving iron instrument.

3. Unsuitable for a.c. supply. If low frequency alternating current

is applied to the moving coil, the deflection of the pointer

would be upscale (forward direction) for the half of the cycle of

the input waveform and downscale (in the reverse or backward

direction) for the next half. As a result of power line frequency

(50Hz) and above, the pointer cannot follow the rapid

variations in direction and oscillates slightly around the zero

mark, indicating the average value the a.c. (which equals to

zero).
 Moving Iron Instruments

The most common ammeter and voltmeter for laboratory or switch

board use at power frequency are moving iron instrument. Moving

iron instruments depend for their action upon the magnetic effect of

current, and are widely used as indicating instruments. In this

instrument, the coil is stationary and the deflection is caused by a

soft-iron piece moving in the magnetic field produced by the coil.

Since the alternating current or voltage varies cyclically, the torque

also varies cyclically. The moving system takes up an equilibrium

position when the average torque (deflecting) and restoring torque

(control torque due to springs) are equal and opposite.

Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument

In repulsion type there are two soft iron pieces one fixed and other

movable as shown in Figure. A fixed piece is placed inside the coil

and the other soft iron piece which is movable carries a pointer that

moves over a calibrated scale. When current to be measured is

passed through the coil, it sets up its own magnetic field which
magnetizes the two pieces in the same direction and the movable

piece is repelled away from the fixed one because poles of same

polarity repel each other. As a result, the pointer is deflected against

the controlling torque of a spring. The force of repulsion is

approximately proportional to the square of the current passing

through the coil.

Two different designs are commonly used of vanes.

1. Redial Vane Type

2. Co-axial Vane Type

Radial Vane Type: shows image where the vanes are radial strip

iron. Movable is attached to the spindle and fixed vane is placed in

coil.
Co-axial Vane Type

Show the image where both vanes are section of co-axial cylinders.
Construction of Moving-iron Instruments

The different components of a moving-iron instrument are given

below.

• Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a

vane or rod

• Coil: A stationary coil produce the magnetic field due to

current flowing through it and also to magnetize the iron

pieces. The coil consists of only few turns of thick wire if the

instrument is an ammeter or of many turns of thin wire if

the instrument is a voltmeter.

• Fixed Element: A fixed vane or rod is also used and

magnetized with the same polarity.

• Control torque is provided by spring.

• Damping torque is normally air friction.

• Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum

pointer over a graduated scale.

Torque Equation for Moving Iron Instrument

The expression for deflecting torque of a moving iron instrument

may be derived by considering the energy relations when there is a

small increment in current supplied to the instrument.

When there is a deflection – due to change in current, the

inductance of the system also changes due to motion of moving iron

member.

Let the initial current = I

Initial inductance =L

Initial deflection =  (steady deflected condition when

connected to d.c.)

If the current is increased by dI during the time dt deflection

changes by d and inductance changes by dL.

If the deflecting torque = TD then

Mechanical work done = TD d

During motion, the e.m.f. induced in the coil is

The electrical energy supplied is given by,

Hence the change in stored energy is given by,

The energy supplied in nothing but increase in stored energy plus

the energy required for mechanical work done.

This shows that Td α I2

Here, the current I is in Amp. L in henry,  is in radian.

At equilibrium, controlling torque TC  = Deflecting torque TD 

TC  K S (for spring-controlled instrument)

1 2 dL
K S  I
2 d
1 I 2 dL

2 K S d
If the current is alternating

i  I m sin t

1  cos 2 t  dL
 I m sin  t  dL d  I m2 
1 2 1
Tinst   d
2 2  2 

2
1  I m2  dL 1 I  1
Tav      m  dL  I 2 dL , I  r.m.s. value
2  2  d 2  2  d 2 d

Mean torque  square value of r.m.s. current.

If the instrument scale is calibrated in amps, the instrument reads

the r.m.s value of current i.e., the instrument is capable of operating

on both A.C and D.C.

Shape of Scale in Moving Iron Instrument

The deflection in a moving iron instrument is given by

1 I 2 dL
 d
2 KS
Thus, the angular deflection is proportional to the square of the

dL
operating current if d is maintained constant, and the

instrument has square law response. As the deflection is

proportional to the square of the current it is evident that the scale

of such instrument is cramped at the lower end and opens up at the

higher end.

If there is no saturation, the change in inductance with the

angle of deflection is uniform i.e., dL d = a constant. For such

instrument, the scale can be easily laid as the measured quantity is

proportional to the square root of deflection.

dL
In actual instrument d is not constant and is usually a

function of angular position of the moving iron and thus the scale is

distorted from the square law in a manner dependent upon the way

in which inductance varies with angle. This variation can be

controlled by suitable design i.e., by choosing proper dimensions,

shape and position of iron vanes. Thus, it is possible to design and

construct an instrument with a scale which is very nearly uniform

over a considerable part its length.

From equation the deflecting torque

Td = (1/2)I2(dL / dθ)

For spring control, the control torque TC  k1

Since TD  TC

dL 2k1
 2
d I

dL 2k1 Constant
Now for linear scale I  k2 and d  k 2 2 
2 

dL
This is not possible as it requires to be infinite at  = 0.
d

But for square law scale I 2  k2

dL 2k1
and d  k   Constant.
2
 dL
d

0.10 100%
0%
crammped linear
scale scale

dL
Figure above shows the variation of d with respect to 

considering linear and square law scale.

It is also possible to design and construct an instrument in which a

small portion of the range, which is of particular interest or

important is expanded over a large part while the remainder of the

scale is compressed into a relatively small space. It is clear from the

torque equation that the portion of scale near zero can never be

expanded or made uniform since this requires that the initial value

of dL d be infinite.
So, it is possible to design a moving iron instrument to have a linear

scale from the upper limit down to a fraction of full scale and a

square law scale from this point to zero.

Shunts and Multipliers for MI instruments

For moving-iron ammeters

For the circuit shown in Fig., let Rm and Lm are respectively the

resistance and inductance of the coil and Rsh and Lsh the

corresponding values for shunt.

The ratio of currents in two parallel branches is

The above ratio will be independent of frequency ω provided that the

time constants of the two parallel branches are same i.e., (Rm / Lm)

= (Rsh / Lsh).

In other words,

Multiplying power of the shunt = (1+(Rm /Rsh))

It is difficult to design a shunt with the appropriate inductance, and

shunts are rarely incorporated in moving iron ammeters.

For moving-iron voltmeters

Let us consider a high resistance Rseis connected in series with the

moving coil and it is shown below.

Advantages:

• The instruments are suitable for use in ac and dc circuits.

• The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of

the moving parts.

• The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.

• Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.

• Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.

Errors in Moving Iron Instrument

Errors with both D.C and A.C

Hysteresis Error

This error occurs as the value of flux density is different for the

same current when ascending and descending. The value of flux

density is higher for descending values of current and, therefore, the

instrument tends to read higher for descending values of current

(and voltage) than for ascending values. This error can be

minimized by making the iron parts small so that they demagnetize

themselves quickly. Another method is to work iron parts at low

values of flux density so that the hysteresis effects are small.

With the use of Ni-iron alloys ( – metal) may reduce this error.

Stray Magnetic field Error

The error due to stray magnetic field (fields other than operating

field) may be appreciable as the operating magnetic field is weak

and hence can be easily distorted. Such error depends on the

direction of the stray magnetic field relative to the field of the

instrument. This error can be minimized by using an iron case or

thin iron shield over the working parts of the instrument.

Temperature error
The effect of temperature changes on moving iron instruments

arises chiefly from the temperature coefficient of spring. The error

may be 0.02% per oC. In voltmeters errors are caused due to self-

heating of coil and series resistance. The temperature of coil may

increase by 10oC to 20oC for a power consumption of 1W.

Therefore, the resistance increases (by 4 to 8%) causing a decrease

in current for a given voltage. This produces a decreased deflection.

Therefore, the series resistance should be made of a material like

manganin which has a small temperature coefficient. The value of

series resistance should be very large as compared with the coil

resistance in order to minimize error due to self- heating.

Frictional error

Error due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in

moving-iron instruments.

Error with A.C. only

Eddy Current error

These errors are caused by eddy currents induced in the iron parts

of the instruments.

Frequency errors

Changes in frequency may cause errors due to changes of reactance

of the working coil and also due to changes of magnitude of eddy

currents set up in the metal parts of instrument.

The change of reactance of the instrument coil with frequency is

important in case of voltmeter where an additional resistance RS is

used in series with the instrument coil. From Fig.3.6, let the

resistance and inductance of the instrument coil be R and L. Then

the current I in the instrument for a given applied voltage V is given

by

V
I
 R  RS   2L2
2

L R RS

Coil Series resistance

Fig. Moving Iron Voltmeter

The deflection of the moving iron voltmeter depends upon the

current through the coil. Therefore, the deflection for a given

voltage will be less at high frequencies than at low frequencies.

Compensation to this type of error is possible by connecting a

capacitor C across the series resistance RS as shown in Fig.

 L Rm C

RS

Fig. Frequency Compensated Moving Iron Voltmeter

1
RS
jC
Z m  Z  Rm  Rm  j L 
1
RS 
jC

RS R 1  jCRS 
where Z  j L   j L  S
1  jC.RS 1   2C 2 RS2

If CRS  1
Z  j L  RS 1  jCRS  1   2C 2 RS2 
 j L  RS  jCRS2   2C 2 RS3  j 3C 3 RS4

 RS   2C 2 RS3  j  L  CRS2 1   2C 2 RS2 

 RS   2C 2 RS3  j  L  CRS2 

 RS 1   2C 2 RS2   j  L  CRS2 

 RS 1   C R    2  L  CRS2 
2 2
Z  2 2 2
S

for compensating RS  Z
  RS2  RS2 1   2C 2 RS2    2  L  CRS2 
2 2

 R 1   C R  2 C R   
2
S
4 4 4
S
2 2 2
S
2
 L  CR 
2 2
S

 R 1  2 C R   
2
S
2 2 2
S
2
 L  CR 
2 2
S

 RS2  2 2C 2 RS4   2 L2   2C 2 RS4  2 2 LCRS2

or,  2 L2   2C 2 RS4  2 2 LCRS2  0

or, L2  C 2 RS4  2 LCRS2  0

2CRS2  4C 2 RS4  4C 2 RS4
L 
2
 2.41CRS2
L
 C  0.41
RS2

The idea of shunting the series resistance is to make the circuit

behave like a pure resistive circuit so that the frequency changes

have no effect on the readings of the instrument. Thus, the

compensated instrument will have a power factor nearly equal to

unity. As the resistance of the meter R is considerably smaller than

series multiplier resistance RS, it can be assumed that it is sufficient

to ensure that the magnitude Z of the impedance of the circuit

formed by L, RS and C has a value of RS under a.c. conditions.

Example – 1
The copper coil of 150V moving iron voltmeter has a resistance of

400. The current for full scale deflection is 0.05A. Calculate the %

error for 10oC rise in temperature if (a) series resistance is made up

with Cu (b) series resistance is manganin.

150
Total resistance of the voltmeter circuit   3000
0.05

Series resistance value is given by

 3000  400  2600

(a) Increase in resistance for 10oC rise in temperature

R10  3000 1  0.004 10   3120

Full scale deflection current for 10oC rise in temperature

150
 0.048 A
3120
(b)Increase in resistance for 10oC rise in temperature when

manganin is used

400 1  0.004 10   2600 1  .00015 10   3019.9

150
Full scale deflection current
  0.049 A
3019.9
.048  0.05
% error for case (1)   100  4.16%
0.048

.049  0.05
% error for case (2)
  100  2.04%
0.049
 Electro-dynamic Wattmeter
 DYNAMOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENTS are similar to the

permanent magnet type instruments, except that the

permanent magnet is replaced by a fixed coil.

 The coil is divided into two halves, connected in series with the

moving coil.

 The two halves of the coil are placed close together and parallel

to each other to provide uniform field with in the range of the

movement of moving coil.

Electro dynamic (or Dynamometer) type Instruments:

Fixed coil: The magnetic field is produced by the fixed coil which is

divided into two sections.

Moving coil: The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining

coil or else on a non-magnetic former. A metallic former cannot be

used, as eddy currents would be induced in it by alternating field.

Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil. It should be

noted that both fixed and moving coils are air cored.

Springs: The controlling torque is provided by two control springs.

These hairsprings also act as leads of current to the moving coil.

Dampers: Air friction damping is employed for these instruments

and is provided by a pair of Aluminum-vanes attached to the

spindle at the bottom. These vanes move in a sector shaped

chamber.

Shielding: The magnetic field is produced by the fixed coils are

weaker than that of p.m.m.c. instruments, so the meter needs a

special magnetic shielding. Electro-dynamic instruments are

effectively shielded from the effects of external magnetic fields by

enclosing the mechanism in a laminated iron hollow cylinder with

closed ends.

Electro dynamic Wattmeter

If an electro dynamic instrument has its fixed coils F connected in

series with a load and its moving coil M connected, in series with a

high resistance, across the supply, the instrument may be calibrated

to read the power in the circuit (Fig.), this is the main use of electro

dynamic instruments. In such an arrangement, V is the supply p.d.,

I the load current, and R, the total resistance of the moving coil

circuit. Then the fixed-coil current I1 (Fig.) is the load current I, and

the moving coil current I2 has the value V/R.

 Wattmeter

F F
I1

I
I2
M
Supply High
RS series Load
V
resistor

Electro dynamic Wattmeter

Now from the expression of deflecting torque in electro dynamic
instruments

dM
T  I1 I 2
d
dM
Assuming d = constant = K

then T  KI1 I 2
V K
 T  KI  VI
R R

For a d.c. circuit the torque is thus proportional to the power.

In a.c. circuit the power at any instant is given by

p = vi

where p = instantaneous power.

v = instantaneous supply voltage.

i = instantaneous current flowing through the load.

If both current and voltage waves are sinusoidal, the current lagging

in phase by an angle  then

v  Vm sin t
i  I m sin t   

The instantaneous power

 p  vi
 Vm I m sin t  sin t   
writing t  
p  Vm I m sin  sin    

2
Vm I m
The mean power  P 
2  sin  sin     d
0
 V I
2
 cos   cos  2    
 m m
2 0  2
d

2
V I  sin  2    
 m m  cos   
4  2 0

Vm I m
 cos 
2
 VI cos 

Wattmeter reading = voltage applied to the voltage coil x current

flowing through the current coil x cosine of the
angle of the angle between applied voltage and
current.
Thus, an electro dynamic instrument, connected as shown in the Fig.

becomes a wattmeter which will give a direct indication of the power

in either d.c. or a.c. circuit. The moving coil is then usually called

the voltage coil (or pressure coil) and carries a small current

proportional to the circuit p.d., the fixed coils are called the current

coils and will carry a fairly heavy current. This enables reasonably

high torque-weight ratio to be obtained, due to the difficulties

associated with obtaining high enough values for this ratio result in

a high cost for the instrument.

Wattmeter Errors:

Error due to Pressure coil inductance:

The mean torque of an electro dynamic instrument is proportional

to I1 I 2 cos  where I1 and I 2 are r.m.s values and  is the phase

angle between two currents. In the theory of electro dynamic

I2  V
wattmeter, it has been assumed that R, where R is the

resistance of a non-inductive voltage-coil circuit.

I2
O V O V

  I2
 -  =


I1=I I1=I

(a) Voltage coil is resistive (b) Voltage coil is inductive

Phasor diagram of the electrodynamic wattmeter

 IV
 The deflecting torque  cos 
R
In practice the voltage-coil must possess some inductance, at a given

frequency let the resulting reactance be X.

V
Here I 2  lagging V at an angle 
R2  X 2
l p R
  tan 1 X R  tan 1 R
 cos 1
where R 2   2l p2
lp = pressure coil inductance
R = total resistance of the pressure coil circuit
= rp + RS
rp = pressure coil resistance
RS = non-inductive resistance

I 2  V cos 
i.e., R

The deflecting torque

 I1 I 2 cos 

V cos  cos 
 I1 cos      VI cos    
R R
If the inductance of the pressure coil circuit were zero, then

VI
deflection  cos  and the wattmeter would read correctly at
R
all frequency and power factors.

The ratio of the true reading of the wattmeter to the actual reading

is therefore

VI
cos 
R
VI
cos  cos    
R
cos 

cos  .cos    
cos 
 True reading   Actual reading
cos  cos    

The wattmeter will read high (Fig.) on lagging power factors of the

load, since the effect of the inductance of the pressure coil circuit is

to bring the current in it more nearly into phase with the load

current than would be the case when the inductance is made zero.
 I1=I

  
O V O V
 

I2
 I2

I1=I

(a) (b)
lagging p.f. leading p.f.
deflection V cos 
deflection  I1 cos    
V cos  R
 I1 cos    
R  instrument will read low.
 instrument reading high.

The wattmeter will read low (Fig.4.3(b)) when the load power factor

is leading as in that case the effect of pressure coil inductance is to

increase the phase angle between the load current and pressure coil

current.

Error due to Pressure Coil Capacitance:

The pressure coil circuit may have capacitance as well as

inductance. This capacitance is mainly due to the inter turn

capacitance of the series resistance. Due to capacitive effect the

wattmeter will read low on lagging power factors of the load by

increasing the angle between the load current and pressure coil

current and wattmeter will read high on leading power factor of

load. In wattmeter a small capacitor is connected in parallel with the

series resistor to obtain a practically non-reactive voltage coil

circuit. This is shown in Figure below

If the capacitive reactance of the pressure coil circuit will be equal

to its inductive reactance, there will be no error due to these effects

since the two individual errors will neutralize each other.

C.C
Wattmeter

P.C
Supply

High
Load

C series
resistor

Fig. Compensated wattmeter

Error due to Connections:

The normal connections to a wattmeter are shown conventionally in

Fig., in which M and L are the terminals of the current coil and V+

and V the terminals of the voltage coil circuit. The V+ and V

terminals are sometimes marked  and V respectively.

A wattmeter is normally required to indicate the power in the load.

Its actual reading will be a value slightly higher, owing to the power

losses in the instrument circuits, the error due to this depending on

connections. With an alternating current supply and the connections

of Fig., a the power in the load will be VI cos  , where cos  is the

load power factor. The p.d. V1 across the voltage coil is the phasor

sum of V and V where V is the volt-drop across the current coil

(i.e., V   Ir , where r is the current-coil resistance). Thus the

wattmeter reading is V1 I cos  (Fig., θ being the angle between V1

and I. From the diagram, V1 cos   V cos   V 

 V'
Wattmeter
C.C
M L I V
O
V'
V 
V

Supply

V+ P.C V1

Load
V1

I
(a) (b)

Fig.: Wattmeter voltage coil connected on the ‘supply’ side and its
phasor diagram.

Hence,

Wattmeter reading  V cos   V   I

 VI cos   IV   VI cos   I 2 r
 power in load + power loss in current coil
(fixed coil)

In connections of Fig. the total current I1 through the current coil

will be the phasor sum of the load current I and the voltage coil

V
current I. I   where R is the resistance of the voltage coil
R

circuit.

The wattmeter reading  VI1 cos   V  I cos   I  

  VI cos   VI 
2
 VI cos   V
R
 power in load + power loss in voltage coil
(moving coil)

Wattmeter
C.C
I1 = I + I' L I V
O

M
V 
V
Supply

V+ P.C I' Load

I1
I
I'
(a) (b)

Fig.: Wattmeter voltage coil connected to ‘load’ side and its phasor diagram.

The errors due to instrument circuit losses (i.e. due to fixed and

moving coils) are small, but it may be desirable to use whichever of

the connections Fig. or Fig. is likely to give more correct reading. If

a load current is small compared with the current rating of the

wattmeter coils, the power taken by current coils is small and

connection Fig. is used. If the current approaches the rating of the

wattmeter the power taken by the current coils increases and

connection Fig. is preferable. If the desired accuracy requires that

the power loss in the instrument circuit may be taken into account
connection Fig. is preferable since for a constant voltage, it

introduces a constant error which is easily applied as a correction.

Compensation for power loss in the Pressure Coil:

In some wattmeter’s a compensating coil is used to eliminate the

error due to the current coil carrying the pressure coil current in

addition to the load current when the connections are as in Fig.4.7.

This compensating coil is as nearly as possible identical and co-

incident with the current coil, so that if it were connected in series

with the latter, and a current passed through the two coils –

connected so that their magnetic effects are in opposition – the

resultant magnetic field would be zero. Actually, the compensating

coil is connected in series with the pressure coil, then its magnetic

effect opposes the current coil and neutralizes the pressure coil

component of the current in the current coil. The resultant field is

due to current I only. Thus, any extra torque due to the voltage coil

current in the current coil itself is neutralized by the torque due to

the voltage coil current in the compensating coil. If no-load current

flows in the instrument, the deflection should be zero since the

resultant current coil field should be zero. Hence the error caused

by the pressure coil current in the current coil is eliminated.

Resultant m.m.f due to fixed coil combination

  I  IV  N C  IV N C  IN C   I  I   NC  I NC
 IN C

Compensating Coil

Current
Coil

Voltage
Supply Coil Load

Series
Resistor

Connections of Compensating Coil

Example – 1

An electrodynamic wattmeter has a voltage coil circuit of resistance

of 8000 and inductance of 63.6mH which is connected directly
across a load carrying 8A at 50 Hz, voltage of 240V and p.f. 0.1
lagging. Estimate the percentage error in the wattmeter reading
caused by the loading and inductance of voltage coil circuit.

Solution: The wattmeter is connected as that shown in Fig.4.6(a)

Load power  VI cos   240  8  0.1  192 watt

  cos 1 0.1  84o

V 2  240 
2

Power loss in the voltage coil circuit    7.2 watt

R 8000

Neglecting the inductance of the voltage coil circuit reading of the

wattmeter due to connections be 192 + 7.2 = 199.2 watt.

Resistance of the voltage coil circuit  8000  R

Reactance of the voltage coil circuit

 2  50  63.6  10 3

 19.97  X
 X 19.97
  tan 1  tan 1
R 8000

cos  cos    
Wattmeter reading  199.2  cos 

= 201.8709 watt.
 201.8709  192 
% error =    100  5.14%
 192 

Example – 2

A 200V, 8A dynamometer type wattmeter has resistances of current

and pressure coils as 0.8 and 10,000 respectively. Determine the
% errors due to resistance for (i) voltage coil connected to supply
side and (ii) voltage coil connected to load side. The power factor of
load is 0.75 lagging. Neglect error due to inductance of the pressure
coil circuit.

Solution:

Load voltage V = 200V, Load current I = 8A

Load power factor, cos  0.75

 Resistance of current coil, Rc  0.8

Resistance of pressure coil, R p  10, 000

Power taken by load

 Vicos  200  8  0.75  1200 watt

(i) When voltage coil connected by supply side

Actual reading of wattmeter  VIcos  I Rc

2

 1200   8  0.8
2

 1200  51.2  1251.2 watt

1251.2  1200
% error  100  4.267%
1200

(ii) When voltage coil connected load side

2
V
Actual reading of wattmeter  VIcos  Rp

200 2
 1200 
10, 000
  1200  4  1204 watt
1204  1200
% error  1200
 100  0.333%

Example – 3:

A dynamometer type wattmeter with its voltage coil connected

across the load side of the instrument reads 250 watts. If the load
voltage be 200V, what is the power taken by load? The voltage coil
has a resistance of 2000.

Solution:

When the voltage coil connected to load side the wattmeter

reading is given by

Actual wattmeter reading = Power taken / supplied to the load

+ Power loss in voltage coil circuit

Here Actual wattmeter reading = 250 watt

 200 2
Power loss in voltage coil circuit   20 watt.
2000

Power taken by the load  250  20  230

Measurement of Power in Three Phase Circuits
Two Wattmeter Method

Instantaneous power consumed by load

 v1i1  v2i2  v3i3

Let us consider two wattmeter connected to measure power in three

phase circuits as shown in Fig. for Star connection and Delta

connection.

Star Connection

Fig.: Measurement of power in three-phase balanced star connected load.

Instantaneous reading of wattmeter P1

p1  i1  v1  v3 

Instantaneous readings of wattmeter P2

p2  i2  v2  v3 

Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeter’s

 p1  p2

 i1  v1  v3   i2  v2  v3 

 v1i1  v2i2  v3  i1  i2 

From Kirchhoff’s law (Fig.4.16)

i1  i2  i3  0

or i3    i1  i2 

 Sum of instantaneous readings of two watt meters

 v1i1  v2i2  v3i3

Therefore, the sum of the two wattmeter readings is equal to the

power consumed by the load. This is irrespective of whether the load

is balanced or unbalanced.

V13

V1
I1
30o

V23
I3 30o
 
V3 V2
I2

Fig.: Phasor diagram for two wattmeter method

Figure shows the phasor diagram for a balanced star connected load

of Figure above.
Let V1 ,V2 ,V3 be the r.m.s. values of phase voltages and I1 , I 2 , I 3 be
the values of phase currents.

The load balanced, therefore

Phase voltages V1  V2  V3  V (say)

Line voltages V13  V23  V12  3 V

Phase currents I1  I 2  I 3  I (say)

Line currents I1  I 2  I 3  I ,

Since in star connected load phase current = line current

Power factor  cos

The phase currents lag the corresponding phase voltages by an

angle .
The current through wattmeter P1 is I1 and voltage across its

pressure coil is V13 .

I1 leads V13 by an angle 30o   .

  Reading wattmeter
P1
P1  V13 I1cos  30o   

 3VIcos  30o   

The current through wattmeter P2 is I 2 and voltage across its

pressure coil is V23 . I 2 lags V23 by an angle 30o  

 Reading of wattmeter P2

P2  V23 I 2 cos  30o   

 3VIcos  30o   

Sum of reading of two-watt meters

P1  P2  3VI cos  30o     cos  30o   

 3VIcos

This is the total power consumed by load.

 Total power consumed by load P  P1  P2

Difference of readings of two- watt meters

P1  P2  3VI  cos  30o     cos  30o    

 3VI sin 
P1  P2 3VIsin

P1  P2 3VIcos

tan

3
P1  P2
or,   tan 1 3
P1  P2

 1 P1  P2 
Power factor cos   cos  tan 3 
 P1  P2 

Effect of power factor on the readings of wattmeter’s

(A) With unity p.f.

cos  1

or,  0
The readings of the two-watt meters are
 P1  3VIcos  30o   

 3VIcos30o

3
 VI
2
and

P2  3VIcos  30o   

 3VIcos30o

3
 VI
2
Total power P  3VIcos  3VI

Thus, at unity power factor, the readings of the two- watt meters are
equal, each wattmeter reads half of total power.

(B) When p.f. = 0.5

  60o

Therefore,
 P1  3VIcos  30o   

 3VIcos  30o  60o 

3
 VI
2
and

P2  3VIcos  30o   

 3VIcos  30o  60o 

0
3
Total power P  3VIcos  VI
2

Therefore, when the power factor is 0.5, one of the watt meters

reads zero and the other reads total power.

(C) When p.f. = 0

  90 o

Therefore,
 P1  3VIcos  30o   

 3VIcos  30o  90o 

3
 VI
2
and

P2  3VIcos  30o   

 3VIcos  30o  90o 

3
 VI
2

Total power P  3VIcos  0

Therefore, with zero power factor, the readings of the two watt

meters are equal but of opposite sign.

It should be noted that when the power factor is below 0.5, one of

the watt meters will read negative. Under these conditions in order

to read the wattmeter, we must either reverse the current coil or the
pressure coil connections. The wattmeter will then give a forward

(positive) reading but this must be taken as negative for calculating

the total power.

Delta Connection

Fig.: Measurement of power in three-phase balanced delta connected load.

The instantaneous current flowing through the current coil of the

Wattmeter W1 is given by the equation iR = i1-i3

Instantaneous voltage measured by the Wattmeter W1 will be eRB

Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter,

W1 will be given as W1 = eRB (i1-i3)

The instantaneous current through the current coil of the

Wattmeter, W2 is given as iY= i2-i1

The instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of

Wattmeter, W2 is eYB.

Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by Wattmeter,

W2 will be W2 = eYB (i2 – i1).

Hence, to obtain the total power measured by Two Wattmeter

Method, two equations, has to be added.

W1+W2 = eRB (i1-i3) + eYB (i2 – i1)

W1+W2 = i1eRB –i3eRB +eYBi2 – eYBi1 = eYBi2 – i1(eYB –eRB) –i3eRB

Now eRB= -eBR

W1+W2 = eYBi2 – i1(eYB + eRB) –i3eRB

Since eRY + eYB + eBR = 0 or eRY + eYB – eRB = 0 or eYB –eRB = -eRY
W1+W2 = eRYi1 + eYBi2 + eBRi3

Thus, the total power (sum of the two wattmeter’s reading)

measured by the Two Wattmeter at any instant is the instantaneous

power absorbed by the three loads connected in three phases.

EXAMPLE 1

The input power to a 3-phase a.c. motor is measured as 5kW. If the voltage

and current to the motor are 400V and 8.6A respectively, determine the

power factor of the system?

Power P=5000W, Line voltage VL = 400 V, Line current, IL = 8.6A and

power, P =√3 VLIL cos φ

Hence
power factor = cos φ = P / √3 VLIL = 5000 / √3 (400) (8.6) = 0.839

EXAMPLE 2
Two wattmeter are connected to measure the input power to a balanced 3-

phase load by the two-wattmeter method. If the instrument readings are 8kW

and 4kW, determine (a) the total power input and (b) the load power factor.

(a)Total input power,

P=P1 +P2 =8+4=12kW

(b) tan φ = √3(P1 − P2)/(P1 + P2) = √3 (8 – 4) / (8 + 4) = √3 (4/12) = √3(1/3)

= 1/ √3

Hence φ= tan−1 (1/ √3) = 30◦

Power factor= cos φ = cos 30◦ =0.866

EXAMPLE 3

Two wattmeter connected to a 3-phase motor indicate the total power input to

be 12kW. The power factor is 0.6. Determine the readings of each wattmeter.

If the two wattmeter indicate P1 and P2 respectively

Then P1+ P2 = 12kW ---(1)

tan φ =√3(P1 − P2)/(P1 + P2)

And power factor=0.6= cos φ.

Angle φ= cos−10.6=53.13◦ and tan 53.13◦ =1.3333.

Hence
1.3333 =√3(P1 − P2)/12

From which, P1 − P2 = 12(1.3333) /√3

i.e. P1 −P2 =9.237kW ----(2)

Adding Equations (1) and (2) gives: 2P1 = 21.237 i.e P1 = 21.237/2 =

10.62kW.

Hence wattmeter 1 reads 10.62kW

From Equation (1), wattmeter 2 reads

(12−10.62) = 1.38kW
 Ohmmeter

The “Wheatstone Bridge” method is the best method for

measurement of medium-valued resistances.

Wheatstone bridge

At the point of balance

R2 / R1 = Rx / R3 Or Rx = R3(R2 / R1)
However, since majority of the electrical equipment have medium-

valued resistances, some form of portable and direct reading

instrument is necessary for measurement of this class of resistances,

even if it is at the expense of accuracy. Such instruments do exist

and are known as ohmmeters. Ohmmeters exist as independent

entities, but in their most common form they are integral part of

multi-meter. Ohmmeters also find use in checking the continuity of

electrical circuits and also for determination of the order of a totally

unknown resistance, so that a suitable method for its measurement

can be chosen.

Series Type Ohmmeter

 Im Ib R1 T1

I2

R2
Rm M X

T2
Ohmmeter Battery

Figure shows the schematic circuit of a series type ohm-meter. Here,

M = Basic PMMC movement, also known as basic

D’Arsonval movement after its inventor.

R1 = Current limiting resistor.

R2 = Zero-adjust shunt resistance.

X = Unknown resistance.

Rm = Internal resistance of basic movement.

E = Voltage of internal battery.

Meter deflection   Si I m

Si  Current sensitivity of movement

  0 corresponds to the pointer position when meter current is
zero.

I b R2
Again Im 
Rm  R2

or,

or

It can be seen that Im and hence θ depends on X. So if properly

calibrated, the meter can be used for measuring resistance.

★ With T1 and T2 shorted (i.e. X = 0), the circuit current is

maximum. R2 is now adjusted until the pointer indicates full

scale current IFSD (i.e. the pointer has full scale deflection FSD).

This position on the scale is marked 0.

 ★ With T1 and T2 open, the pointer indicates zero current and

this position is marked  on the resistance scale. So the zero

and the  on the resistance scale is on the right extreme and

left extreme respectively.

★ Intermediate markings on the scale are made by connecting

different known values of resistance to the instrument. So

higher is the value of X, lower is Im and hence θ. That is, the

scale on the ohmmeter will read opposite to a conventional

current or voltage measuring instrument.

It can be seen from equation above that the resistance scale is highly

non-linear as θ is a hyperbolic function of X. The scale is sketched

below.
 Fig. : Scale of A Series Type Ohmmeter

For lower values of X, small change in X results in large change in θ.

For higher values of X, large change in X results in small change in

θ. So the resistance scale is spread out at the low-resistance end and

cramped at the high-resistance end.

Although series type ohmmeters are extensively used in portable

instruments for general service work, the main difficulty is that the

internal battery voltage decreases with age. Under this condition, if

T1 and T2 are shorted, the pointer does not indicate 0, but takes up

a position that corresponds to a current value lower than the full

scale current. As can be seen from equations, the pointer can be

brought to the 0 mark by adjusting R1, R2 and Si. Adjustment of

R1 changes the calibration along the entire scale. Since the

equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of Rm and R2 is

much smaller than R1, adjustment of R2 will result in a small change

in the calibration. Hence R2 is used for zero adjustment. In fact, if

the problem of change in the battery voltage were not there, it would

not have been necessary to use R2 at all.

If X is low compared to the resistance of series ohmmeter, it does

not produce any noticeable change in the ohmmeter deflection. Only

relatively higher values of X can produce appreciable change in

deflection. Hence series-type ohmmeter is particularly suited for the

measurement of relatively high resistances.

Shunt Type Ohmmeter

The resistance to be measured is connected in parallel with the

measuring circuit. R1 is the current limiting resistor or infinity

adjustment resistor.

Ib R1 Ix T1

Im

E
M Rm X

Switch T2

Fig. 7.10: Shunt Type Ohmmeter Circuit

The switch is used to disconnect the battery when the instrument is

not in use, so that there is no drainage of the battery.

  Si I m
Ib X
Im 
X  Rm

EX
Im 
or,  Rm X 
 R1    X  Rm 
 X  Rm 

EX
Im 
or,
R1 X  R1 Rm  Rm X
 E
Im 
or, R1  Rm
 R1  Rm  
X

Si E
 
R1  Rm
 R1  Rm  
X

★ With T1 and T2 shorted i.e. X = 0, meter current is zero and

hence deflection is zero. So this point is marked 0.

★ With T1 and T2 open, meter current is maximum and R1 is

adjusted for maximum deflection. This point is marked as  .

★ The ohmmeter scale reads in the same direction as a

conventional ammeter or voltmeter. The scale is non-linear – it

is cramped at the high resistance end. For very low values of X,

the scale is linear.

For order of values of X large compared to Rm and R1, change in X

does not produce noticeable change in Im and hence in the

deflection. For small values of X compared to Rm and R1, change in

X affects Im and hence  noticeably. Hence shunt type ohmmeter is

particularly suited for measurement of relatively low resistance.

For full scale deflection,

E
I m  I FSD 
R1  Rm

For half scale deflection

1 E
Im  I FSD 
2 2  R1  Rm 
 R1 Rm Rm
 Rh  
R1  Rm 1  Rm
R1

Normally R1 is large compared to Rm

Rh = Rm

If there is a decrease in the value of E due to ageing, then with T1

and T2 open circuited, the pointer does not come to the infinity

mark. So R1 is adjusted to bring the pointer to the  mark. Hence

R1 is also known as the infinity adjustment resistance.

 MEGGER

Megger is a portable instrument which is used to measure insulation

resistance of the electrical machinery or system. It can be

battery operated or mechanically operated (hand crank dc

generator) and gives a direct reading in ohms. For this reason, it is

also called as ohm meter.

Insulation resistance (IR) quality of an electrical system degrades

with time, environment condition, i.e., temperature, humidity,

moisture and dust particles. It also gets impacted negatively due to

the presence of electrical and mechanical stress, so it’s become very

necessary to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a

constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal or electrical

shock.

Types of Megger

This can be separated into mainly two categories: -

1. Electronic Type (Battery Operated)

2. Manual Type (Hand Operated)

 Electronic Type Megger

Electronic Type Megger

Important parts: -

1. Digital Display: - A digital display to show IR value in digital

form.

2. Wire Leads: - Two numbers of wire leads for connecting

megger with electrical external system to be tested.

3. Selection Switches: - Switches use to select electrical

parameters ranges.
4. Indicators: - To indicates various parameters status i.e. On-

Off. For Example, Power, hold, Warning, etc.

Note: - Above construction is not similar for every megger, it

difference appears manufacture to manufacture but basic

construction and operation are same for all.

Advantages of Electronic Type Megger

 Level of accuracy is very high.

 IR value is digital type, easy to read.

 One person can operate very easily.

 Works perfectly even at very congested space.

 Very handy and safe to use.

Disadvantages of Electronic Type Megger

 Require an external source of energy to energies i.e. Dry cell.

 Costlier in market.
 Hand Operated Megger

Important parts: -
Analog display: - Analog display provided on front face of tester for

IR value recording.

Hand Crank: - Hand crank used to rotate helps to achieve desired

RPM required generate voltage which runs through electrical

system. There is a centrifugally controlled clutch in hand crank

which slips at a predetermined speed so that a steady voltage can be

obtained.
Wire Leads: - Used same as in electronic tester i.e. For connecting

tester with electrical system.

Advantages of Hand Operated Megger

1. Still keeps important in such high-tech world as it’s an oldest

method for IR value determination.

2. No external source required to operate.

3. Cheaper available in market.

Disadvantages of Hand Operated Megger

1. At least 2 person required to operate i.e. one for rotation of

crank other to connect megger with electrical system to be tested.

2. Accuracy is not up to the level as it’s varies with rotation of

crank.

3. Require very stable placement for operation which is a little

hard to find at working sites.

4. Unstable placement of tester may impact the result of tester.

5. Provides an analog display result.

6. Require very high care and safety during use of the same.
Construction of Megger

The construction and connections are shown below.

The moving system consists of two coils, the "control coil" and the

"deflecting coil"-rigidly mounted at an angle to one another and

connected, in parallel across a small generator, with polarities such

that the torques produced by them are in opposition. The coils move

in the air gap of a permanent magnet.

The current leads to the coils are in the form of very flexible

conducting phosphor bonze filaments (ligaments) having the least

possible torsion. The control coil is in series with a fixed control

circuit resistance; the deflecting coil is connected in series with a

fixed deflecting circuit resistance and the resistance under test.

Working Principle

With no resistance connected for measurement, there is no

deflecting torque. The restoring torque moves the pointer

anticlockwise until the control coil comes to rest with its plane

perpendicular to the magnetic field. This point is marked “infinity”.

With a resistance X (unknown resistance) connected for

measurement, the moving system rotates clockwise, while deflecting

coil rotates in a uniform field, control coil moves from a weaker to a

stronger field and the resistance to the motion increases. The control

torque produces a restoring torque which progressively increases

with the angular deflection, and the equilibrium position of the

movement is attained when the two opposing torques balance. The

value of X is indicated by the pointer on the scale.

When the measuring terminals are short circuited, the

compensating coil threads over, the extension H of the pole piece.

The pointer position corresponds to zero mark. The scale is non-

linear with the upper part cramped compared to the lower part.
The control coil is actually in two parts, in series, the outer part

being a compensating coil. The two parts are arranged with

numbers of turns and radii of action such that, for external

magnetic fields of uniform intensity, the torques cancels one another

thus giving an astatic combination.

The instrument has a small permanent magnet d.c. generator

developing 500 V DC. (Other models have 100, 250, 1,000 or 2,500 V

generators). The generator is hand-driven, through gearing and a

centrifugally controlled clutch which slips at a predetermined speed

so that a steady voltage can be obtained.