EE 3204

Measurements and Instrumentation

Chanakya Pannila | chanakyap@sltc.edu.lk

Sri Lanka Technological Campus

Satellite Earth Station, Padukka.
ILOs:

1. Explain basic concepts and definitions of electrical measurement.

2. Calculate peak, dc and rms values, period, frequency and phase of

alternating signals.

3. Derive expressions for impedance ratio between arms of ac bridges.

4. Explain the operational principles of basic analog and digital test

instruments.

5. Design a simple measuring instrument.

Measurements using Electrical
Instruments
Measuring current, voltage, and resistance
Ammeter:
• measures current (A) A
• connected in series I
(current must go through instrument)

Voltmeter: V
• measures potential difference (V)
• connected in parallel a b

Ohmmeter:

• measures resistance of an isolated
resistor (not in a working circuit)
Introduction

The deflection type instruments with a scale and movable pointer are called
Analog Instruments.

The deflection of the pointer is a function of the value of the electrical

quantity being measured.

In PMMC meter (or D’Arsonval) meter or Galvanometer all are the same
instruments, a coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetice field produced by
permanent magnet.
PMMC Meter (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Meter)

The PMMC movement is often called the D’arsonval movement, after its inventor.

It provides an instrument with very low power consumption and low current required for
full scale deflection.

It can be used for DC measurements only.

Describe :
PMMC Meter (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Meter)
 The moving coil movement described being increasingly replaced by a tautband
movement in which the moving coil and the pointer are suspended between bands of
spring metal.

 So the restoring force will be tensional.

 The bands perform two functions,

 Support the coil
 Provide restoring torque so eliminate the pivots and jewels

 This method has advantages of,

- Greater Sensitivity - Ruggedness
- Minimal Friction - Easy to manufacture
Deflecting Torque
 If the coil carrying current of 𝑖 A,

the force on a coil Side = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 × 𝑁

Torquue due to both sides = (2𝑟)(𝐵 𝑖 𝑙 × 𝑁)
= 𝐺 ∙𝑖

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
G = 2rBlN = NBA
A = 2rl = area of the coil
N = no. of turens of the coil
B = flux density of the Magnetic field in Wb/m2
l = length of the vertical side of the coil in m
2r = breadth of the coil
i = Current in ampere
Deflecting Torque
 The value of control torque depends on the mechanical design of the control device.

 For spiral and strip spring suspensions controlling torque is directly proportional to the
angle of deflection of the coil.
Control torque = C× 𝜃

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝜃 − 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
C – Spring Constant

We’ll discuss,
i. f.s.d. current (Im)
ii. Internal resistance of the coil (Rm)
iii. Sensitivity (S)
Characteristics of Moving coil Meter movement
(i) Full Scale deflection Current (Im):
The current needed to deflect the pointer all the way to the right to the last mark
on the scale. Typical values vary from 2𝜇𝐴 to 30 𝑚𝐴.
For Smaller Currents,
The number of turns in the moving coil has to be ……..,
Fine wire has to be used for reducing the weight of the coil but resistance will be…..,

For Heavy currents,

Need thick wire but lesser number of turns so that resistance of the moving coil…..,

(ii) Internal Resistance (Rm):

The dc Ohmic resistance of the wire of the moving coil. Typical values ranges from 1.2 W
for 30 mA movement to 2 kW for a 50 mA movement.
Characteristics of Moving coil Meter movement
(iii) Sensitivity(S):

Also known as current sensitivity or sensitivity factor. This depends on the number of turns
in the coil and strength of the permanent magnet.

Given by the reciprocal of full-scale deflection current Im

1
𝑆= 𝑜ℎ𝑚/ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐼𝑚

Ex: Find sensitivity of 50 𝜇𝐴 meter movement ?

PMMC Meter - Advantages
 It has uniform scale
 Operating current is small
 High sensitivity
 Consumes low Power (order of 25 W to 200 µW)
 High Accuracy.
 Extension of instrument range is possible.
 Not affected by external magnetic fields (i.e. Stray magnetic fields)

PMMC Meter - Disadvantages

 Used only for DC measurements.
(Why : )
 The cost of instrument is high.
Galvanometer
 Galvanometer is an instrument used for detection and measurement (Presence,
Direction or strength) of small electric currents.

 Being a sensitive instrument, heavy currents cannot be measured.

Galvanometers are Three Types.

1. DC Galvanometers.
- Moving magnet Galvanometers
- Moving coil Galvanometers
1. AC Galvanometers.
- Phase sensitive Galvanometers
- Frequency Sensitive Galvanometers (f < 200 Hz)
2. Ballistic Galvanometers.
D’ Arsonval or Moving Coil
Galvanometer
Torque Equation of Galvanometer
Galvanometer works on
the principle of conversion
of electrical energy in to
mechanical energy. When
a current (or voltage) flows
in a magnetic field it
experiences a magnetic
torque.
Torque Equation of Galvanometer
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
l, r = length of respectively vertical and horizontal side of the coil
N = no. of turens of the coil
B = flux density of the Magnetic field in Wb/m2
k = spring cnstant
i = Current through the moving coil in ampere
θF – final steady state deflection of moving coil

We know that the force on the coil (F) = 𝐵 𝑖 𝑙 × 𝑁 × sin 𝜃

when the field is radial 𝜃 = 90° then the force is given by,
F= 𝐵𝑖𝑙 × 𝑁
Defelection torque is given by = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 × 𝑁r
= NBi × A
Torque Equation of Galvanometer
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
l, r = length of respectively vertical and horizontal side of the coil
N = no. of turens of the coil
B = flux density of the Magnetic field in Wb/m2
k = spring cnstant
i = Current through the moving coil in ampere
θF – final steady state deflection of moving coil

We know that the force on the coil (F) = 𝐵 𝑖 𝑙 × 𝑁 × sin 𝜃

when the field is radial 𝜃 = 90° then the force is given by,
F= 𝐵𝑖𝑙 × 𝑁
Defelection torque is given by = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 × 𝑁r
= NBi × A
Deflection Torque
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐺𝑖
Where G is the displacement constant of the galvanometer = NBA or NBlr

Controlling Torque
Controlling torque exerted by the suspension at deflection 𝜃F
In steady state deflection,

We know that the force on the coil (F) = 𝑇C = 𝐾𝜃F

In steady state deflection = 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐷

Therefore 𝜃F = ???
For small deflection, the radius of arc and angle of turning decide the deflection. If the
mirror turned 𝜃F the angle through which the beam gets reflected 2 𝜃F
d in mm = 2𝜃F × 𝑟 … . . ,
DC Instruments
a. It can be made in to a DC anmmeter, milliammeter or microammeter by adding a suitable
shunt resistor Rsh parallel with it.

b. It can be changed in to a DC voltmeter by connecting a multiplier resistor Rmult in series

with it.

c. It can be converted in to an ohmmeter with the help of a battery and series resistor R.
DC Ammeter
The Basic movement of a DC ammeter is a PMMC D’Arsonval galvanometer.

When the larger currents are to be measured it is necessary to bypass the major part of
current through a low resistance called “Shunt Resistor”.

The Resistance of the shunt can be calculated by analyzing

the circuit.
DC Ammeter
 The ratio of total current to the movement current is known as multiplying power of shunt.

 The main properties of shunt are,

 Resistance of shunt should not vary with time.
 Temperature co-efficient of shunt and instrument should be low and should be
same.
DC Ammeter
Ex:

A 1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100  is to be converted in to 0-100

mA. Calculate the value of shunt resistor required ?
Multi Range Ammeter
 The current ranege of the ammeter further extended by a number of shunts, selected by a
range switch.

 This uses a multiposition make-before-break switch.

 Let m1, m2, m3, m4 be the shunt multiplying power for respective I.
Multi Range Ammeter
Ex:
Design a multi range DC mili-ammeter with a basic meter having a resistance 75 nand full
scale deflection for the current of 2 mA. The required ranges are 0-10 mA, 0-50 mA and 0-100
mA.
Multi Range Ammeter
Ex:
Design a multi range DC mili-ammeter with a basic meter having a resistance 75 nand full
scale deflection for the current of 2 mA. The required ranges are 0-10 mA, 0-50 mA and 0-100
mA.
Universal or Ayrton Shunt
We can use universal shunt in the multi-range ammeter.

The advantage using universal shunt is that it eliminates the possibility of meter being in the
circuit without shunt.

When the switch at position 1,

𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑚 )𝑅1

When the switch at position 2,

When the switch at position 3,

Universal or Ayrton Shunt
Ex:
Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with the current ranges 1A, 5A and 10 A. A
basic meter resistance is 50 and full scale deflection current is 1 mA.
Precautions when using ammeter in mesurements

 Never connect an ammeter across a source of EMF.

- ∵ its low resistance it draws damaging high current.

 Always connect the right polarity.

- Reverse polarity may damage the pointer.

 When using a multi-range meter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the
current range until substantial deflection is observed.
DC Voltmeter
 Voltmeter used for measuring potential difference.

 The high resistor is connected in series with D’Arsonval movement called multiplier. The
multiplier limits the current so that it does not exceed the f.s.d. current.

From the Circuit,

V=?

Rearranging the above,

𝑅𝑆 = ?
DC Voltmeter
Ex:
Calculate the value of multiplier resistance on the 50 V range of a Dc voltmeter that uses a 200
µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100.
DC Voltmeter
Ex:
A basic D’Arsonval with fsd of 50 µA and internal resistance of 500  is used as a voltmeter.
Determine the value of the multiplier resistance needed to measure a voltage range 0 – 10 V.