Unit 1: Contouring

By
Er.Mukesh kafle
1.1 Definition

 Contour:
 A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface.
 It can also be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the ground
surface.
 For example, the line of intersection of the water surface of a still lake or pond with
the surrounding ground represents a contour line.
Contour interval:

 The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on a given map is fixed.
 This vertical distance between any two contour lines in a map is called the contour
interval (C.I.) of the map. Figure (a) shows contour interval of 1m whereas
Figre(b)shows 10m.
Horizontal equivalent

The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is called as horizontal
equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while the
horizontal equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.
General contours

 A contour line is an imaginary line which connects points of equal elevation.

 Such lines are drawn on the plan of an area after establishing reduced levels of several
points in the area.
 The contour lines in an area are drawn keeping difference in elevation of between two
consecutive lines constant.
Index contour

 A contour line shown on a map in a distinctive manner for ease of identification, being
printed more heavily than other contour lines and generally labeled with a value (such as
figure of elevation) along its course.
 It appears at regular intervals, such as every fifth or sometimes every fourth contour
line (depending on the contour interval).
1.2 Criteria for selection of contour interval

 The choice of suitable contour interval in a map depends upon four principal
considerations.
 These are:
 Nature of the Terrain
 Scale of the Map
 Accuracy
 Time of Cost
Cont…..
Nature of Terrain: 
 The contour interval depends upon the nature of the terrain (Table 1).
 For flat ground, a small contour interval is chosen whereas for undulating and broken
ground, greater contour interval is adopted.
Cont……

 Scale of the Map

 The contour interval normally varies inversely to the scale of the map i.e., if the scale
of map is large, the contour interval is considered to be small and vice versa (Table 2).
  
Cont…

 Accuracy
 Accuracy need of surveying work also decide the contour interval.
 Surveying for detailed design work or for earthwork calculations demands high
accuracy and thus a small contour interval is used.
 But in case of location surveys where the desired accuracy is less, higher contour
interval should be used.
Cont…

 Time of Cost
 If the contour interval is small, greater time and funds will be required in the field
survey, in reduction and in plotting the map.
 If the time and funds available are limited, the contour interval may be kept large.
1.3 Characteristics of contours

The contours maps have the following characteristics:

 Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
 Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.
 Closely spaced contour indicates steep ground.
 Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.
 Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.
 Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards centre
indicate a pond.
 Cont…

 Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards Centre

indicate hills.
 Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge.
Cont…

 Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate valley .
 Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other.
 If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff .
 If contour lines cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave .
Cont….
Cont….
1.4 Methods of control for contour survey

 The method of establishing / plotting contours in a plan or map is

known as contouring. It requires planimetric position of the points and
drawing of contours from elevations of the plotted points.
 Contouring involves providing of vertical control for location of points
on the contours and horizontal control for planimetric plotting of points.
 Thus, contouring depends upon the instruments used (to determine the
horizontal as well as vertical position of points).
 In general, the field methods of contouring may be divided into two
classes:
i. Direct methods
ii. Indirect methods
1.4.1 Direct method

 In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Points
which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally joined
to obtain the particular contour.
 This method is slow and tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour
interval and at high degree of precision. 
Cont…..

 Vertical control : 
 In this method, a benchmark is required in the project area. The level is set up on any commanding position
and back sight is taken on the bench mark. Let the back sight reading on the bench mark be 1.485 m. If the
reduced level of the bench mark is 100 m, the height of instrument would be 100 + 1.485 = 101.485 m.
 To locate the contour of 100.5 m value, the staff man is directed to occupy the position on the ground
where the staff reading is 101.485 -100.500 = 0.985 m. Mark all such positions on the ground where the
staff reading would be 0.985 m by inserting pegs. Similarly locate the points where the staff reading would
be 101.485 -101 = 0.485 m for 101m contour.
 The contour of 101.5 m cannot be set from this setting of the instrument because the height of instrument
for this setting of the instrument is only 101.485 m. Therefore, locating contours of higher value, the
instrument has to be shifted to some other suitable position.
 Establish a forward station on a firm ground and take fore sight on it. This point acts as a point of known
elevation, for shifting the position of the instrument to another position, from where the work proceeds in
the similar manner till the entire area is contoured.
Cont…

 Horizontal control :
 The horizontal control is generally provided by method of plane table surveying or
locating the positions of points.
1.4.2 Indirect method

In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels are reduced. Thus
in this method horizontal control is established first and then the levels of those points
found.After locating the points on the plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines are
interpolated between the selected points.
For selecting points any of the following methods can be used:
I. Method of squares
II. Method of cross-section 
III. Radial line method
Method of squares
 In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid points
are marked .
 Commonly used size of square varies from 5 m × 5 m to 20 m × 20 m. Levels
of all grid points are established by leveling.
 Then grid square is plotted on the drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid
points marked and contour lines are drawn by interpolation [Ref. Fig. 1].
Method of Cross-Section

 In this method cross-sectional points are taken at regular interval. By leveling the
reduced level of all those points are established. The points are marked on the drawing
sheets, their reduced levels (RL) are marked and contour lines interpolated.
 Figure 2 shows a typical planning of this work. The spacing of cross-section depends
upon the nature of the ground, scale of the map and the contour interval required. It
varies from 20 m to 100 m. Closer intervals are required if ground level varies abruptly.
 The cross- sectional line need not be always being at right angles to the main line. This
method is ideally suited for road and railway projects.
Cont…
Radial Line Method 

 [Fig. 3]. In this method several radial lines are taken from a point in the area. The
direction of each line is noted. On these lines at selected distances points are marked
and levels determined. This method is ideally suited for hilly areas. In this survey
theodolite with tacheometry facility is commonly used.
 D ir e c t M e th o d
1 Very accurate but slow and tedious
2 E x p e n siv e
A p p r o p r i a t e fo r s m a l l p r o je c ts re q u i r i n g h i g h
3 accuracy, e.g., layout of building, factory,
s tr u c tu ra l fo u n d a tio n s , e tc .
Indirect Method
N o t v e r y a c c u r a te b u t q u ic k e r a n d le s s
te d io u s .
R e a s o n a b le c o s t
S u it a b le f o r la r g e p ro j e c ts re q u i ri n g
m o d e ra te to lo w a c c u ra c y , e . g ., la y o u t o f
h i g h w a y , ra il w a y , c a n a l, e tc .

4 More suitable for low undulating terrain. Suitable for hilly terrain.
Calculations need to be carried out in the
5 C a lc u la tio n in th e fie ld is n o t m a n d a to r y .
f ie ld
A f te r c o n to u ri n g , c a lc u la tio n c a n n o t b e Calculations can be checked as and when
6
checked. needed
1.5 Methods of interpolation of contours

For interpolating contour points between the two points any one of the following method
may be used:
I. Estimation
II. Arithmetic calculation
III. Mechanical or graphical method.
Estimation

 The location or positions of contour points between ground points are estimated and the
contours are then drawn through them.
 This method is rough and the accuracy depends on the skill and experience of the
surveyors. It is usually use for small scale map.
Arithmetic calculation

 Let A and B be two corners of the squares. 

 The RL of A is 98.75 m, and that of B 100.75 m.  the horizontal distance between A and B is
10m.
 Horizontal distance between A and B = 10m
 Vertical difference A and B = 100.75-98.75=2m
 Let a contour of 99.00 m be required.  Then,
 Difference of level between A and 99.00m contour = 99.00-98.75=0.25m
 Therefore, distance of 99.00 m contour line form A= 10/2 *0.25=1.25m
 This calculated distance is plotted to the same scale in which the skeleton was plotted to
obtain a point of RL of 99.00 m.
 Similarly, the other points can be located.
Mechanical or graphical method.

Mechanical or graphical method of interpolation consists in linearly interpolating contour

points using tracing sheet:
 On a tracing sheet several parallel lines are drawn at regular interval. Every 10th or 5th
line is made darker for easy counting. If RL of A is 97.4 and that of B is 99.2 m.
Assume the bottom most dark line represents 97 m RL and every parallel line is at 0.2
m intervals. Then hold the second parallel line on A.
 Rotate the tracing sheet so that 100.2 the parallel line passes through point B. Then the
intersection of dark lines on AB represents the points on 98 m and 99 m contours [Ref.
Fig. 4].
 Similarly the contour points along any line connecting two neighboring points may be
obtained and the points pricked. This method maintains the accuracy of arithmetic
calculations at the same time it is fast.
Cont…
1.6 Uses of contour maps

 A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to identify.
Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
 By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the ground along that
line. It helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if formation level of road/railway is
decided.
 Intervisibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the ground along that
line.
 The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to minimize and
balance earthworks.
 Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of nalla or river can be found.
This study is very important in locating bunds, dams and also to find out flood levels.
 From the contours, it is possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir.