SURVEYING II

Santosh Niraula
ACEM
SYLLABUS
1. Traversing – 7hrs
2. Tacheometry -5hrs
3. Trigonometric levelling-4hrs
4. Contouring-4hrs
5. Orientation-4hrs
6. Curves-8hrs
7. Photogrammetry and Remote sensing-5hrs
8. Field Astronomy and GPS-3hrs
9. Total station-3hrs
10. Geographic Information System (GIS)-2hrs
Chapter-1
Traversing
 Traverse is a system of controlling framework consisting of a series of
straight lines connecting successive points whose lengths and directions
have been determined from field observations
 Points defining the ends of traverse lines are called traverse stations or
traverse points and line joining these stations are called traverse leg.
 All field activities done for the formation of traverse is known as
traversing
 Traversing consists of measurement of
 Angle between successive lines
 Length of each line
Classification of Traverse
1. Classification based on construction
a. Closed Traverse
b. Open traverse
c. Linked traverse
2. Classification based on instrument used and procedure adopted
a. Compass traverse
b. Plane table traverse
c. Deflection angle traverse
d. Included and excluded angle traverse
e. Traverse by angle to the right
f. Stadia traverse
g. Theodolite Traverse
1. Classification based on construction
a. Closed traverse
-If figure formed by lines originates and terminates at same point,
then it is called closed traverse.
-It is formed for boundary survey, area calculation and establishing
supplementary control points.
-In this case complete geometrical check is possible.
i.e. sum of interior/exterior angle of closed traverse is 2𝑛 ± 4 ∗ 90

b. Open traverse
It originates from one point and terminates at other point. This type
of traverse is formed in long narrow strip of land. For example:-
Highway route survey, pipe lines, transmission line survey etc.
Complete geometrical check is not possible. For check, length and
bearing computed indirectly is compared to length and bearing
observed in field or line of sight to a common point should intersect at
a common point. These common points are called auxillary points.
Cont…..
c. Linked Traverse
It originates from one known co-ordinated point and
terminates at other known co-ordinated point. Such type of
traverse is formed as minor traverse. The minor means
traverse formed with low accuracy than major traverse .

The co-ordinates of location of minor stations can be

calculated using co-ordinates major stations.

These type of traverse are generally formed to detail the

features which can not be detailed through major stations.
2. Classification based on instrument used and
procedure adopted
Compass traverse and plane table traverse
has already been dealt under surveying I
syllabus.
c. Deflection angle traverse
Deflection angle is the angle made by
prolongation of preceding survey line with
succeeding survey line.
In case of closed traverse formed by
deflection anges, the sum of deflection angle
is 3600. i.e. in figure (55+62+81+69+93 = 360o)

Figures: open and closed traverse formed by

deflection angles.
Cont…..
d. Included and Excluded angle traverse
e. Traverse by angle to the right
For the formation of open traverse,
this method is used

f. Stadia traverse
If stadia principle is used in measuring linear
distances during traversing operation, it is called as
stadia traverse.
If stadia diaphragm are fitted in theodolite, it can
be used as a tacheometer and can be used in
formation of stadia traverse.

Fig: traverse by angle to right

f. Theodolite traverse
Students are constructing theodolite traverse in field during their
practical's. So its principle needs to be discussed here.
Principle of theodolite traverse
1. According to accuracy aimed and the nature of ground, the lengths of
traverse legs are measured directly on the ground either by chaining or
taping.
2. Traverse angle between the consecutive traverse legs are measured
with theodolite by setting up the instrument at each station in turn. If
coordinate of one station and true bearing of traverse leg connected it to it
are known, the coordinate of other traverse station may be calculated with
following formula.
b. Easting or 𝑋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 = 𝑋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 ± 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
b. Northing or Y − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 = 𝑌 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 ± 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Where, l = length of survey line AB and 𝜃 is the reduced bearing.

[Note: in above formula some if only + is used instead of ±, then it must

be understood that 𝜃 is whole circle bearing.]
1.1 Need and Significance of Traversing
• Traversing is rapid and convenient method of field control. It is especially used for densely built up area
and heavily wooded area for setting control points at short interval.
• It helps to establish precise control points which can be used for mapping and photometric work.
• For establishing control points for highway route, canal survey etc.
• For obtaining boundary, area calculation etc.
Planning and requirement for traverse
• Establishing specifications for Horizontal and vertical control.
• Collecting of existing data, photography, slide etc. if available.
• Preliminary analysis of all existing control points which can be used as a reference point for further
survey.
• Selecting of survey equipment's and procedure which can be used for appropriate task.
• Selection of computational procedure, method of presentation of final results (map, site reports, cost
analysis, time schedule etc.)
Specification for Horizontal and Vertical Control
Specification for Horizontal control (Distance and Direction Control)
• Two set of observation i.e. 0 set and 90 set are essential at each apex point.
• Tolerance for the FL and FR observation = 1800 ± 2 L.C.
• Sum of all the traverse angle should be
[(2n±4)*90] ± L.C. √n
where, n is the no. of observed angles
• Linear precision must be higher than 1:2000
Specification for Vertical control
• While performing fly levelling, three wire readings must be taken.
• The average of the three wire readings should not be greater than 1 mm with the middle
reading.
• In a closed loop, the error should be within
±25√k mm
where, k is the loop distance in km.
1.3 Field Work for traversing and Traverse
field notes
• Reconnaissance
Act of inspecting or exploring the area to be surveyed.
 Gives tentative idea about the location of stations.

• Selection of stations
Following points should be considered:-
1. Station should be selected on firm and stable ground so that the instrument does not settle
down.
2. Station should be selected in such a way that all the details could be picked up from those
selected stations.
3. Leg length for maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg should be with in 2:1 & 3:1 for
major and minor traverse respectively.
4. Angle between two legs should be neither too acute (<300 ) nor too obtuse (not between 1600
– 1800 ).
• Marking and referencing of stations
Use wooden pegs
Referencing must be done by measuring from at least 3 permanent points
to the center of pegs.

• Observation (Measurement of traverse legs and angles, detailing)

Distance is measured either by chain or tape.
The precision for distance and angle should be properly followed, which is
mentioned in the slide just before.
 Measurement of various details are now taken.

• Booking of field notes

 Must be neatly and correctly booked so that it will be easy for
computation.
Traverse field notes
• It includes numerical data, sketches, some explainary notes, etc.
• All survey data must be legally accepted.
• Data must be recorded using ball pen.
• Overwrites are not allowed.
1.4 Traverse Computation
Theodolite traverse is not plotted by angles and distances but is plotted by
latitudes and departures. In other word, traverse is to be plotted by
rectangular coordinate system for better precision. So traverse computation
is based on plotting process. So to obtain coordinates following
computations are done step wise.
1. Reduction of readings to angles
2. Balancing of angles
3. Computation of bearings
4. Balancing of bearings
5. Computation of Latitude and Departures
6. Balancing of Consecutive Coordinates
7. Computation of Independent Coordinates
1. Reduction of Readings to angles
It can be done by two methods
i) Angle from face left and face right
ii) Angle by mean direction
Example
Example
• Compute the angle by i) angle from FL and FR ii)mean direction
method from following data.
Instrument At Sighted to Face I set II set
A L 0 0’ 0” 90 0’ 0”
R 179 59’ 30” 269 59’ 40”
o
B L 121 0’ 0” 211 0’ 40”
R 301 0’ 20” 31 0’ 20”
Solution by mean direction method

Mean dirn
Mean dirn
set-I Mean dirn I set-II from both Angle
Inst sighted II
Face set
stn to

D M S M S D M S M S M S D M S

L 0 0 0 90 0 0
A 59 45 59 50 59 47.5

R 179 59 30 269 59 40
O 121 0 33
L 121 0 0 211 0 40
B 0 10 0 30 0 20

R 301 0 20 31 0 20
 Solution by angle from FL and FR

Mean dirn
Mean dirn
set-I Angle FL set-II from both Angle
Inst sighted II
Face set
stn to

D M S M S D M S M S M S D M S

L 0 0 0 90 0 0
A 0 0 0 40 0 25

R 179 59 30 269 59 40
O 121 0 33
L 121 0 0 211 0 40
B 0 50 0 40 0 40

R 301 0 20 31 0 20
2. Computation of Angular Error
Angular error = observed sum –theoretical sum

Where, Theoretical Sum of all measured traverse angle = 2𝑛 ± 4 ∗ 90

Angular error must be within ±𝐿𝐶 𝑛

If error is within permissible limit, correction can be done based on

following:
3. Balancing of Angles
Arbitrary adjustment
If angular error is negligible, correction can be made upon larger two or
three angles only.

Average adjustment
If error is considerable, but within permissible limit, adjustment is made
equally.
Example: if there are 5 stations and angular error is 37” (say), then while
distributing equally, we obtain correction per angle is 37/5 = 7.4”. But
correction is never made in decimals for seconds.
So better way is to distribute 7” equally in all 5 angles which covers 7*5= 35”
and left behind 2” which can be adjusted on larger angle/angles.

Adjustment based on field condition

Correction is made at suspected stations of measurement.
3. Computation of Bearings
• Bearing of one leg is either measured by prismatic compass and bearing of other legs are
computed.
• Use traverse angle (observer left hand angle or angle to the right) to compute bearing while
traversing in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
i. Relations when traverse angle are measured
𝐹𝐵 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝐵 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ± 180 𝑜𝑟 − 540
ii. When deflection angles are measured
For left hand deflection, deflection angle is considered –ve.
So bearing of BC which is to be found out with known bearing of AB
= 47o and deflection angle = 850 is
FB Bearing BC = FB of AB ±deflection angle
Use +ve for right hand deflection and –ve for left hand deflecton.
So in this case, FB of BC will be = 47-85 =-38 and while deducting
Deflectin angle, if result is –ve, add 360o, which gives -38+360 = 322o
For right hand deflection
Similarly, FB of BC = 313+85 = 398
And in case of right hand deflection, if sum exceeds
360, deduct 360 which makes final FB of BC as
=398-360 = 38o
4. Adjustment of bearing
• In case of closed traverse, there is no need to adjust bearing as angular adjustment is made on
traverse angle and bearing when calculated with adjusted traverse angle does not produce any
error in bearing.
• In case of link traverse general trend is to adjust bearing instead of adjusting traverse angle. It is
so because the angular error is known only after computing bearing in case of link traverse. So to
escape from calculating bearing once again after adjusting traverse angle, it is preferred to adjust
bearing directly which can be made by cumulative correction method.
• In case of link traverse, when bearing of finishing line is not matched with initial bearing then
such error (accumulated angular error) can be adjusted by cumulative correction approach
discussed so far.
• Before computing bearing of link traverse, bearing of starting survey line must be known. Minor
traverse (Link) is only computed after computation of major traverse. So starting survey line of
known bearing is always the bearing of major leg.
• With reference to next slide to be shown, let bearing of major leg M1-M2 Or leg M3-M2 is known.
With known FB of M1-M2 or M3-M2, bearing of M2-m1, m1-m2, m2-m3,
m3-M8 and M8-M9 or M8-M7 is calculated with traverse angles at m1, m2,
m3 and M8.

As the bearing of M8-M9 or M8-M7 has already been calculated during

major traverse computation, now the difference of bearing of fresh
computed bearing through the link and old bearing computed during
computation of major traverse is the total or cumulative angular error
occurred in link traverse. Let it be ±𝑒.
Cumulative method of bearing Correction
Total number of leg for which correction is to be made = 5 (M2-m1, m1-m2,
m2-m3, m3-M8 and including major leg M8-M9 or M8-M7). The major leg
need to be included as its observed bearing differs from true bearing.
𝑛∗𝑒
Now correction for bearing of any leg = ∓ 𝑁 where, n is correction
coefficient whose value is 1,2,3,4 and 5 for leg M2-m1, m1-m2, m2-m3, m3-
M8 and leg M8-M9 or M8-M7 respectively.
N is the number of affected bearing =5 in this case
1∗𝑒
So correction for M2-m1 = ∓
5
2∗𝑒
correction for m1-m2 = ∓ 5
………………………………………………….
5∗𝑒
correction for M8-M9 or M8-M7= ∓ 5 = ∓e
5. Computation of consecutive coordinates(Dependent coordinates)
Latitude and departures are called as consecutive coordinates. It is also
called dependent coordinates as coordinate of extremities of survey line
in traverse is defined with respect to preceding point as origin.
Latitude is defined as the projection of survey line on its meridian or
northing axis.
Departures can be defined as the projection of survey line on its parallel
or easting axis.
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 𝑙𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐿𝐵𝐶
= 𝑙𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 𝑙𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐷𝐵𝐶
= 𝑙𝐵𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
Where θ is either WCB or Reduced Bearing. If reduced bearing is used
then following sign convention must be followed
Northing = +ve latitude,
Southing = -ve latitude
Easting = +ve Departure
Westing =-ve Departure
Example, survey line BC extend toward east and south so its latitude is –
ve but departure is +ve.
Closing error
After computing the consecutive coordinates, next step is to compute magnitude and directions of
closing error.
For Closed Traverse
For closed traverse, the theoretical (error free) summation of Latitude and Departures is equal to
zero. But due to error in angular and linear measurement, the observed summation is never equal
to zero.
So in case of closed traverse, the summation of latitudes and departures gives the value of error in
latitude and error in departures which is the latitude and departure of closing error.
i.e. ∆𝐿 = σ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 = σ 𝐷, where L and D are the Latitude and Departures respectively.
For Link Traverse
In case of minor or linked traverse, the theoretical summation of latitude and departure is not equal
to zero. Here in ideal case (no error in latitude and departure case),
σ 𝐿 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘
And σ 𝐷 = 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘
Therefore, error in Latitude ∆𝐿 = σ 𝐿 − ∆𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 = σ 𝐷 − ∆𝐸
The ∆𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 obtained is shown in figure. From
∆𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷, magnitude and direction (Bearing) of closing
error can be calculated as following:
Magnitude of closing error (Resultant error) = 𝑒 =
(∆𝐿)2 +(∆𝐷)2 and
Direction of closing error is obtained as
−1
∆𝐷
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
∆𝐿
The direction so obtained by only considering plane figure
(no sign convention) is in term of RBS (Quadrantal). It
should be converted to WBS.
If ∆𝐿 = +𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 = +𝑣𝑒, then lies on I quadrant
If ∆𝐿 = −𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 = +𝑣𝑒, then lies on II quadrant
If ∆𝐿 = −𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 = −𝑣𝑒, then lies on III quadrant
If ∆𝐿 = +𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 = −𝑣𝑒, then lies on IV quadrant
 N

classwork 0.25

1. Calculate magnitude and direction of closing error -0.5

if ∆L = -0.5 m and error in departure ∆D = 0.25 m. N
[Ans: 0.559 m, S26.5oE or 153.5o] (1)

A(1000, 1050)
2. Find length and bearing of survey line AB whose
coordinates of extremities are as follows: N

A = (1000 mN, 1050 mE) and B=(900 mN, 950 mE)

[Ans:- 141.42m, FB bearing of AB = S 45o W or FB of (2)
BA = N 45o E] B(900, 950)
Relative Precision and Permissible relative
precision
Relative Precision
𝑒 1
It is ratio of proportion in between magnitude of closing error and perimeter of traverse = = 𝑃 =
𝑃 (𝑒)
1:n where n = P/e
Permissible Relative Precision
This is the limit of error. Obtained relative precision should be always higher than permissible
relative Precision.
Traverse Type Permissible Angular Permissible Relative
measure Precision
1. Land, Road and railway 1′ 𝑛 1:3000
survey
2. City and Important 3′′ 𝑛 1:5000
boundary survey
3. Control Survey 15′′ 𝑛 1:10000
Balancing of Consecutive Coordinates
There are two general method of balancing consecutive coordinates, they are:
• Empirical rules
a. Bowditch Rule
b. Transit rule
• Graphical approach
a. Graphical method for Bowditch rule
b. Graphical method for Transit rule
Before entering the adjustment method of consecutive coordinates, lets 1st
discuss the relationship between the precision of angular and linear
measurements.
Relationship between the precision of angular and linear measurements.
Let l be the correct length of survey line PC and θ be the correct angle between
survey lines PC and PQ.
Let δθ be the angular error in measurement and e be the linear error in
measuring length PC.
Lets us assume the displacement produced by angular error be equal to linear
error and equal to e.
𝑒 𝑒
From triangle PaC, tan 𝛿𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝛿𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑙 𝑙
 𝑒
The term is also known as linear precision.
𝑙
So for angular and linear error to be of same precision, we obtain
𝑒
𝛿𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑙
This relation helps us know what is the equivalent angular precision for some value
of linear precision so that angular and linear displacement are same due to angular
and linear errors.

For example:
If linear precision is 1:5000, what is its equivalent angular precision so that
displacement due to linear and angular error are equal?
Solution:
We have,
𝑒
𝛿𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑙
−1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝛿𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0.0114𝑜 = 0.687′ = 41.2’’
5000

With this in mind lets proceed to Bowditch rule.

Bowditch Rule
• When angular measurement and linear measurement are taken in equal
precision, this method is used i.e. displacement due to linear and angular
effects are equal.
• Correction is based on length of each leg and perimeter of traverse.
• Correction for latitude and departure of any leg can be obtained as follows:
∆𝐿∗𝑙𝑖
If ±∆𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐𝐿 = ∓ σ
𝑙𝑖
∆𝐷∗𝑙𝑖
If ±∆𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐𝐷 = ∓ σ
𝑙𝑖
Where, 𝑐𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝐷 are the correction on latitude and departure of individual
survey line whose length is 𝑙𝑖 and perimeter of traverse is σ 𝑙𝑖 .
Transit Rule
• When angular measurement is more precise than linear measurement, this method is used i.e.
displacement due to linear effects are considerably grater than angular displacement.
• Correction is based on latitude or departure of each leg and Total latitude or Total Departure of
traverse.
• Correction for latitude and departure of any leg can be obtained as follows:
∆𝐿∗𝐿𝑖
If ±∆𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐𝐿 = ∓ σ
𝐿𝑖
∆𝐷∗𝐿𝑖
If ±∆𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐𝐷 = ∓ σ
𝐷𝑖
Where, 𝑐𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝐷 are the correction on latitude and departure of individual survey line whose
Latitude is 𝐿𝑖 and Total Latitude is σ 𝐿𝑖 .
Total latitude and total departure can also be defined as the arithematic summation of latitude and
departures. (Summation without sign convention.)
Graphical Bowditch rule
• Students work
• Recall adjust of compass traverse by graphical adjustment.
 Axis method or graphical transit rule
When the accuracy of angular measurement is more than that of linear measurement,
then adjustment of closing error of the traverse is done in such a way that the
direction of each line remains unchanged and the general shape of diagram is
preserved.
Procedure:
 join A’A and produce it to cut side CD at M. The line A’M is called axis of
adjustment.
 The accuracy depends upon selection of axis. If axis divides traverse into two equal
half I.e. (AB+BC+CM)=(MD+DE+EF+FA’) then the accuracy increases.
𝐴′ 𝑁 𝐴′ 𝐹+𝐹𝐸+𝐸𝐷+𝐷𝑀
 Select N such that 𝑁𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵+𝐵𝐶+𝐶𝑀
 Through N draw line parallel to AB to cut Line MB produced at B’ and through B’
draw line B’C’ parallel BC to cut MC produced at C’.
 In similar way draw line C’D’, D’E’, E’F’ and F’N.
 Finally NA’B’C’D’E’F’N is the adjusted traverse.
Sometimes there might the cases when the closing
error produced may not cut traverse or cut into two
unequal portion then in such closing error is
transferred so that axis of adjustment divides
traverse into nearly equal halves and adjustment is
done by procedure described in previous slide.

In the figure the closing error AA’ is transferred to C

as CC1. the principle behind this is line joining ends
of equal and parallel line is also equal and parallel.

So for this A1B1 drawn parallel and equal to AB and

B1C1 drawn equal and parallel to BC. So AA1 =BB1=
CC1
6. Computation of independent coordinates or
total coordinates (Total latitude to total
departures) (X +D , y +L A AB A AB)

• Latitude and departure of any point calculated with respect to (XA+DAB+DBC, yA+LAB+LBC)
common origin are known as independent coordinates. Origin
may be some point of traverse or may be outside traverse.
(XA, yA)
• The main purpose of independent coordinates is to transfer all
the coordinates into positive value so that whole traverse can be
plotted in positive coordinates.
(XA+DAB+DBC+DCD,
• Total coordinates for any point = origin coordinates + algebraic
yA+LAB+LBC+LCD)
sum of all latitudes or departures up to that point.
 Numerical 1
The mean observed internal angle and measured sides of a closed traverse ABCDA
are as follow. Adjust the traverse by Bowditch Rule and Transit Rule if D is due
north of A. Access the accuracy of the result and calculate total coordinates if
Coordinate of A is (1000mE, 1000mN).
Angles Observed Value Sides Length (m)

D M

A 97 41 AB 22.11

B 99 53 BC 58.34

C 72 23 CD 39.97

D 89 59 DA 52.10
 Solution in Tabular Form (Gale’s Table) or Coordinate Calculation Sheet

corrected Independent
Depart Correction Corrected
bearing Coordinate
corrn Latitude ure =
Stn Leg Length corr leg corr bearing Stn
HCR (M) =lcosθ lsinθ

L D
D M D M L D N E

A - 97 41 1 - - 1000 1000 D M A

B AB 22.11 99 53 1 97 42 -2.96 21.91 -0.07 0.05 -3.03 21.96 996.97 1021.96 22.17 97 51 B

C BC 58.34 72 23 1 17 36 55.61 17.64 -0.18 0.14 55.42 17.78 1052.39 1039.75 58.21 17 45 C

-
D CD 39.97 89 59 1 270 0 0.00 -39.97 -0.13 0.10 -0.13 39.87 1052.27 999.87 39.87 270 20 D

A DA 52.10 180 0 -52.10 0.00 -0.17 0.13 -52.27 0.13 1000.00 1000.00 52.27 180 8 A

sum 172.52 0.55 -0.42 -0.55 0.42 0.00 0.00

∆𝐿 = 0.55, ∆𝐷 = −0.42𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 = 0.689𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

= 1: 250 (𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Solution step
1. Compute observed sum of traverse angles and correct them if
necessary.
2. Compute bearing of each survey line from known bearing.
3. Compute consecutive coordinates.
4. Compute error in latitude and departure.
5. Compute magnitude of closing error, direction of closing error and
relative precision of traverse.
6. If obtained relative precision is within permissible limit, then adjust
latitude and Departure by Bowditch or Transit rule which ever
necessary.
7. Compute independent coordinates.
8. Compute corrected length and bearing of traverse.

𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟. 𝐿)2 +(𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟. 𝐷)2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐵𝑆 =
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟.𝐷
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) where, corr. L and corr. D are adjusted latitude and departure
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟.𝐿
by Bowditch or Transit rule.
Example related to minor (link) traverse
computation
The following observations were recorded during minor traversing. The
independent coordinates of M2 is (1000 mN, 1000 mE) and M8 is
(1095mN, 1042mE). Compute minor traverse.
Station Horizontal Leg Length (m) Bearing
Angle (Degrees)
(degrees)
M2 110 M1-M2 - 105
m1 200 M2-m1 35.50
m2 90 m1-m2 55.00
M8 250 m2-M8 42.35
M8-M9 - 36
Solution:
M1, M2,M8 and M9 are the major stations which are known
points. m1 and m2 are minor stations and are unknowns whose
coordinates is to be determined with respect to known coordinates
of M2 and M8.
The traverse angle observed during minor traversing are 110, 200
90 and 250 degrees. To access whether the traverse angle contains
error or not, lets compute bearing with known bearing of M1-M2
and traverse angle.
So,
Bearing of M2-m1 = 105+110 -180 = 35 degrees
Bearing of m1-m2 = 35+200-180 = 55 degrees
Bearing of m2-M8 = 55+90+180 = 325 degrees
Bearing of M8-M9 = 325+250-540 = 35 degrees
But true bearing or bearing from major traverse computation of
M8-M9 is 36 degrees.
So error in angular measurement of traverse angle during minor
traversing = observed value-true value = 35-36 = -1 degrees.
Lets correct this angular error directly in bearing by cumulative
method of bearing correction.
Cumulative method of correction So, corrected bearing of survey lines are:
1∗1
Correction for Bearing of M2-m1 = + 4 = 15′ Correction for Bearing of M2-m1 = 35o15’
2∗1 Correction for Bearing of m1-m2 = 55o30’
Correction for Bearing of m1-m2 = + = 30′
4
3∗1
Correction for Bearing of m2-M8 = 325o45’
Correction for Bearing of m2-M8 = + 4 = 45′ Correction for Bearing of M8-M9 = 36o
4∗1 computation can now be shown in tabular form as follows:
Correction for Bearing of M8-M9 = + 4 = 1 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

Consecutive corrected cons. Independent corected

stn leg length Bearing Coordinates correction Coordinate Coordinates length Corr. Bearing
D M L D L D L D N E D M
M2 - - 1000 1000

m1 M2-m1 35.5 35 15 28.991 20.489 -0.040 0.005 28.951 20.494 1028.951 1020.494 35.47041 34 56

m2 m1-m2 55 55 30 31.152 45.327 -0.062 0.008 31.091 45.335 1060.041 1065.829 54.97159 54 59

M8 m2-M8 42.35 325 45 35.006 -23.835 -0.048 0.006 34.959 -23.829 1095.000 1042.000 42.30725 326 4

132.85 95.149 41.981 95 42

Northing difference between two known points = NM8-NM2 = 1095-1000 = 95 m and easting difference = EM8-
EM2 = 1042-1000 = 42m
Therefore ∆𝐿 = 95.149 − 95 = 0.149 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷 = 41.981 − 42 = −0.019𝑚
0.15
So closing error 𝑒 = 0.1492 + (−0.019)2 = 0.15 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 132.85 = 1: 884
Omitted Measurement of Finding missing Parameters
In some cases, data might get lost. In such case for low precise survey works, data which contains
two unknown variables can be regenerated using principle of closed traverse but if such data is
generated then precision of traverse cant be obtained as all the errors get cumulated in unknown
leg length or bearing.
The principle of closed traverse that can be used to compute omitted measurement are:
• σ 𝐿 = 0 i.e. summation of latitudes of closed traverse is zero.
• σ 𝐷 = 0 i.e. summation of departures of closed traverse is zero.

Omitted measurement in theodolite traverse can be classified into 4 general cases

I. When only one leg is affected
• when length of one leg is omitted
• When bearing of one leg is omitted
• When length and bearing of one leg is omitted
 Tackling case I
The most difficult case to tackle among the listed three case of case I is third case which
include lost length and bearing of affected leg (EA in figure).

For closed traverse, σ 𝐿 = 0

𝑙𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑙𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑙𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 + 𝑙𝐷𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃4 + 𝑙𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃5 = 0
Or, 𝑙𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃5 = ±𝐿′ ………………..[1]
Again, σ 𝐷 = 0
𝑙𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑙𝐵𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑙𝐶𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 + 𝑙𝐷𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃4 + 𝑙𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃5 = 0
Or, 𝑙𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃5 = ±𝐷′ ………………..[2] lEA =?
Squaring and adding equation [1] and [2], we get θEA=?
𝑙𝐸𝐴 = 𝐿′2 + 𝐷′2
Dividing [2] by [1] without considering sign in front of L’ and D’, we obtained bearing of leg
EA in terms of RBS
𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃5
Therefore θ𝐸𝐴 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑙 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃5 ) in RBS.
𝐸𝐴
[Note : for tackling case consisting of length or bearing as unknown, using single equation is
sufficient.]
 II when affected legs are in adjacent
• When length of one leg and bearing of other are
affected
• When length of both adjacent leg are affected
• When bearing of both adjacent leg are affected.

When length of one leg and bearing of other are affected

• Length and bearing of DA can be calculated as in case I
• With known bearing of DA and DE, angle α can be calculated. 𝛽
• With applying sine law in triangle, ADE
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛γ
= from which ϒ can be calculated. 𝜃 𝐷𝐸
𝑙𝐴𝐸 𝑙𝐴𝐷
• Solving internal sum of triangle, angle ϒ can be calculated. =?
• With ϒ known, the bearing of EA can be calculated. γ
𝛼

lDE=?
When length of both adjacent leg are
affected
• Length and bearing of DA can be calculated
as in case I
• With known bearing of DA ,DE and EA,
angle α,β and ϒ can be calculated.
• With applying sine law in triangle, ADE 𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
= = from which unknown l 𝐸𝐴 =?
𝑙𝐴𝐸 𝑙𝐷𝐸 𝑙𝐴𝐷
length DE and EA can be calculated. γ
𝛼

lDE=?
When bearing of both adjacent leg are
affected.
• Length and bearing of DA can be calculated as
in case I
• With known length of DA ,DE and EA, angle
α,β and ϒ can be calculated using cosine law..
• With applying cosine law in triangle, ADE
𝛽
𝐷𝐸 2 + 𝐷𝐴2 − 𝐸𝐴2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 =
2 ∗ 𝐷𝐸 ∗ 𝐷𝐴 θ𝐸𝐴 =?

γ
𝐴𝐸 2 +𝐷𝐴2 −𝐸𝐷 2 𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠β =
2∗𝐴𝐸∗𝐷𝐴
𝐴𝐸 2 + 𝐷𝐸 2 − 𝐷𝐴2 θ DE=?
𝑐𝑜𝑠ϒ =
2 ∗ 𝐴𝐸 ∗ 𝐷𝐸
After knowing α, β and γ bearing of DE and EA
can be calculated.
 Case III when affected legs are not adjacent
(special case of Case II)
Let BC and DE be not adjacent and affected legs. Either their length or bearing
is lost. So case might be the different case as discussed in Case II.

For such cases, case III is reduced to case II by construction.

Construction:
Draw DA’ parallel and equal to BC such that bearing and length of CB is equal
to that of DA’.
Join B and A’. From parallelogram theorem, line joining the extrimities of two
equal and parallel lines are also equal and parallel, bearing and length of CD
becomes equal to BA’.
In triangle, ABA’, the length and bearing of A’A can be easily worked out as it is
similar to problem enlisted in case I.
After knowing length and bearing of A’A, in quadrilateral AA”DEA, now A’D and
DE are two affected adjacent leg which can be solved out as cases discussed in
case II.
Example 3
TU Ashwin 2061
Following data were measured in a traverse ABCDE. Determine length
of DE and bearing of EA.
Line Length Bearing
AB 884 N75o20’E
BC 988 N14o30’W
CD 965 N85o45’W
DE ? S28o22’W
EA 1060 ?
 For closed loop ABCDA,

solution ෍𝐿 = 0

884cos75o20’+998cos(345o30’)+965cos(274o15’)+lDAcos(θDA) = 0
Or, lDAcos(θDA) =L’ = -1261.550 ……..[1]
• Converting RBS Again,
into WBS
෍𝐷 = 0
Line Bearing
AB 75o20’ 884sin75o20’+998sin(345o30’)+965sin(274o15’)+lDAsin(θDA) = 0
Or, lDAsin(θDA) =D’ = 357.040 ……..[2]
BC 345o30’
We have,
CD 274o15’ 𝑙𝐷𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃5
θ𝐷𝐴 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( = S15.80E = 164o11’51” and 𝑙𝐷𝐴 = 𝐿′2 + 𝐷′2 = 1311.098 m
𝑙𝐷𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃5
DE 208o22’
EA x
Now, from triangle ADE
Angle 𝛼 = 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝐸 − 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝐴 = 208𝑜 22′ − 164𝑜 11′ 51" = 44o 10′9"

Now,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
= 𝐷𝐴 , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝛽 = 59𝑜 31′ 23“, so from property of triangle,
𝐸𝐴
𝛾 = 76𝑜 18′ 28" again applying sine law,

1060 𝑙𝐷𝐸
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛γ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 lDE = 1478.052 m
𝑠𝑖𝑛α

Again, bearing of survey line can be calculated from bearing of AD and also from lDE=?
bearing of DE. It is best to calculate bearing from observed value than computed
value. But calculating from all alternative routes and averaging result is better way
of solution.
Bearing of AE = Bearing of AD-angle γ = (164o11’17” +180)-
76𝑜 18′ 28" =267o52’49”
So bearing of EA = 267o52’49”-180 = 87 52’49’
Similarly bearing of EA = bearing of DE+ angle β = 87 53’23” θAE=?
So average value is 87 53’06”
Plotting of Theodolite traverse
Theodolite traverse is plotted on grid sheet by help of independent coordinates.
Plotting by this method is superior than other method of plotting because it prevents
accumulation of errors. Further map can be so adjusted in sheet that it occupies central
area.
While plotting these are the parameters that needs to be computed 1st.
• Compute grid interval with help of scale of topo-map. The spacing between the grid
lines is generally made 5cm in sheet. So 5cm equivalent in field is called grid interval.
For example, if scale is 1:200, grid interval is
1cm represent 200 cm in field
So, 5cm represents 1000cm = 10m which is grid interval.
• Origin is selected such that whole traverse is located at center of sheet. It should be
noted that the coordinates of origin should be multiple of grid interval.
• To plot traverse at center, find maximum and minimum northing and easting value.
• The difference of maximum and minimum northing value divided by grid interval
gives no of grid lines required to cover the traverse in both north-south direction and
east-west direction.
• Let it be 8 and 10 in north-south and east-west direction, then from central grid line
mark 4 grid line upward and 4 downward and 5 left of central and 5 toward right.
• Allocate minimum northing value on downward mark and minimum easting on left
mark by selecting suitable origin multiple of grid interval.
• Plot the traverse and one can see traverse plotted centrally.