4 Point Method / Measurement of Low Resistances: (Item No.: P2410101)

Student's
Sheet
Printed: 12.12.2017 11:22:57 | P2410101
4 Point Method / Measurement of low resistances

(Item No.: P2410101)
Curricular Relevance
Experiment:
Topic: Subtopic:
Area of Expertise: Education Level: 4 Point Method /
Electricity and Electric Current and
Physics University Measurement of low
Magnetism Resistance
resistances
Difficulty Preparation Time Execution Time Recommended Group Size
Difficult 1 Hour 1 Hour 2 Students
Additional Requirements: Experiment Variations:
Keywords:
Ohm's law, resistivity, contact resistance, conductivity, four-wire method of measurement
Overview
Short description
The resistances of various DC conductors are determined by recording the current/voltage characteristic. The resistivity of metal
rods and the contact resistance of connecting cords are calculated.
Fig. 1: Recording the current/voltage characteristic of a metal rod.
Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

D - 37079 Göttingen Fax: +49 551 604 - 107 www.phywe.com
Student's Sheet
Printed: 12.12.2017 11:22:57 | P2410101
Equipment
Position Material Order nr. Quantity

1 Universal measuring amplifier 13626-93 1
2 PHYWE Power supply 0-12 V DC/ 6 V, 12 V AC, 230 V 13505-93 1
3 Heat conductivity rod, Cu 04518-11 1
4 Heat conductivity rod, Al 04518-12 1
5 Digital multimeter 2005 07129-00 2
6 Connection box 06030-23 1
7 Connecting cord, 32 A, 2000 mm, yellow 07365-02 2
9 Connecting cord, 32 A, 750 mm, blue 07362-04 1
10 Connecting cord, 32 A, 500 mm, red 07361-01 2
14 Connecting cord, 100 mm, yellow 07359-02 2
Tasks
1. To plot the current/voltage characteristics of metal rods (copper and aluminium) and to calculate their resistivity.
2. To determine the resistance of various connecting cords by plotting their current/voltage characteristics and calculating
the contact resistances.
Set-up and procedure

1. Connect the metal rod to the mains with an ammeter. Measure the voltage drop across the rod at two sockets on the side,
using the amplifier (four-wire method of measurement, see Fig. 1).
Settings of the amplifier: Low drift, , Amplification: , Timer constant: 0 sec.

2. Connect a connecting cord into the circuit in place of the metal rod, using two double sockets with cross hole (Fig. 2a).
Connect the voltmeter to the sockets of the connecting cord connector (similar to the four-wire method; measuring as
shown in Fig. 2). The voltage dops not only across the pure line resistor but also across the two line/plug contact
resistors as well.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 12.12.2017 11:22:57 | P2410101
Fig. 2a: Measuring the contact resistance and resistivity of

connecting cords: sketch of the set-up
Determine the total resistance of the connecting cord with connectors by connecting the Voltmeter to the holes in the double
sockets (measuring in Fig. 2). The plug/double socket contact resistances are obtained by comparing and .
Fig. 2b: Equivalent circuit diagram: , pd and

1p are contact resistors, a line resistor.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 12.12.2017 11:22:57 | P2410101
Fig. 3: Current/voltage characteristics of a copper rod and an

aluminium rod.
Theory and evaluation

The resistivity of the metal is determined from the resistance of the rod and its dimensions. The rod has a diameter of 2.5
cm (cross section ) and is 31.5 cm long (length ) between the two voltmeter connections.
(1)
Ohm’s law
(2)
The regression lines of the measured values in Fig. 3 give
for the copper rod, and
for the aluminium rod.
The values of resistivity obtained using equation (1) are:
measured Bibliographic data at 20°
Cu 1.79 1.68
Al 2.98 2.72
The aluminium rod is not pure, it contains other additions.
The copper wire in the cords has a cross section of .

Student's Sheet
Printed: 12.12.2017 11:22:57 | P2410101
Fig. 4: Current/voltage characteristics of some connecting

cords of different lengths.
Fig. 4: Current/voltage characteristics of some connecting cords of different lengths.
The line resistance of the connecting cords can be calculated using (1):
The line/plug contact resistance can be established from the difference between the line resistance calculated and the
resistance measured.
is determined from the slope of the straight lines in Fig. 4.
100 1 0.67 5.6 4.9

2 1.6 0.9
750 1 5.0 10.7 5.7
2 9.1 4.1
2000 1 13.4 18.6 5.2
2 18.2 4.8
The average of the line/plug contact resistance values is:
The plug/double socket contact resistance can be determined by comparing the voltages and (see Figs. 2):
In accordance with Figs. 2b,
with
and
with
For a connecting cord 100 mm long the measured values give:
The plug/double socket contact resistance is therefore of the order of

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
Wheatstone bridge (Item No.: P2410200)

Topic: Subtopic:
Area of Expertise: Education Level: Experiment:
Electricity and Electric Current and
Physics University Wheatstone bridge
Magnetism Resistance
Intermediate 1 Hour 2 Hours 2 Students
Adhesive tape, opaque With the resistance board (item no. 06108-00), another task to
determine the conductivity of thin wires can be performed
Keywords:
Kirchhoff's law, Conductor, Circuit, Voltage, Resistance, Resistivity, Parallel connection, Series connection
Overview
Short description
Principle
The Wheatstone bridge is used to determine an unknown resistance with high accuracy by adjusting a connected combination of
known resistors.
Fig. 1: Experimental set-up of the Wheatstone bridge.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
Equipment
Position No. Material Order No. Quantity

1 PHYWE power supply, 230 V, DC: 0…12 V, 2 A / AC: 6 V, 12 V, 5 A 13506-93 1
2 Digital multimeter 2005 07129-00 1
3 Slide wire meas. bridge, simple 07182-00 1
5 Connection box 06030-23 1
6 Resistor 1 Ohm 2%, 2W, G1 06055-10 1
7 Resistor 2 Ohm 2%, 2W, G1 06055-20 1
8 Resistor 5 Ohm 5%, 2W, G1 06055-50 1
9 Resistor 10 Ohm, 1W, G1 39104-01 1
10 Resistor 47 Ohm, 1W, G1 39104-62 1
11 Resistor 100 Ohm, 1W, G1 39104-63 1
12 Resistor 150 Ohm, 1W, G1 39104-10 1
13 Resistor 220 Ohm, 1W, G1 39104-64 1
14 Resistor 330 Ohm, 1W, G1 39104-13 1
15 Resistor 680 Ohm, 1W, G1 39104-17 1
Additional
materials
Adhesive tape, opaque
Optional equipment for task 4 to determine small resistances of thin wires (NOT included in the supply):

Resistance board, metal 06108-00 1
Connecting cord, 32 A, 1000 mm, red 07363-01 1
Connecting cord, 32 A, 500 mm, yellow 07361-02 1
Tasks
1. Determination of unknown resistors with the Wheatstone bridge.
2. Determination of the total resistance of resistors in series.
3. Determination of the total resistance of resistors in parallel.
4. Optional (see required equipment): Measurement of low resistance and determination of the electrical resistivity of
CuNi (Constantan).

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
Theory
The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors that are connected as shown in Fig. 2. A voltage source is connected to the
junctions a and c, whilst the ammeter G measures the current flow between the junctions b and d.
Fig. 2: Wheatstone bridge, basic circuit

diagram.
Kirchhoff's second law implies that the application of a certain voltage between a and c causes an equal potential drop across
the legs a–b–c and a–d–c.
Both legs serve as a particular voltage divider. The potentials at the junctions b and d depend on the proportions of the resistors
along the respective legs
and . (1)
If the resistor proportions are adjusted in a way so that the potentials and equalize, the current flow through the ammeter
vanishes. The detection of zero current is very easy and could also be carried out with a simple galvanometer. This state is called
the point of balance of the Wheatstone bridge. In that case, Eq. 1 can be combined:
(2)
(3)
If three resistors are known and the fourth one, e.g. , should be identified, it can be calculated after setting the bridge to the
point of balance
. (4)
In the present experiment, the resistance in the lower leg is replaced by a slide wire potentiometer as shown in Fig. 3, where a
slider contact can be moved along the length of a wire to divide its total resistance in two distinct parts. The wire is made of a
homogenous material with a uniform diameter, therefore, its resistance can be specified by
(5)
where denotes the electrical resistivity of the wire material, is the length of the wire, and is its cross-section. Hence, the
resistance of the wire depends on geometrical as well as material-specific properties.
Uniform resistivity and cross-section given, the resistance increases proportionally with the length. This implies that the slide
wire resistance ratio can be expressed by its lengths proportion .

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
Set-up
In advance, up to five randomly selected resistors must be prepared for the measurement. To hide the resistance information,
the printed values and optionally the transparent case of the chosen resistors have to be covered with adhesive tape. For
separation during the measurement and verification afterwards, the resistors should be labeled with  …  . In the
following measuring examples, the used designation is:
220 Ω 2 Ω 47 Ω 5 Ω 680 Ω
Fig. 3: Wheatstone bridge circuit diagram.
The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1. According to Fig. 4, the first unknown resistance and a known resistor (e.g.
100 Ω) are placed on the connection box. The short red cord connects with the red connector of the DC output, while the
long red cord connects this junction with the left connector of the slide wire measuring bridge. Likewise, the blue cords are
connected with the comparison resistor , the blue connector of the DC output, and the right connector of the slide wire. In
between, the yellow cords connect the ammeter G (mA scale, DC mode) with the junction between and as well as the
slider of the measuring bridge. The circuit diagram is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig. 4: Set-up of the upper leg of the Wheatstone bridge with

an unknown resistance.
Procedure
1. Determination of unknown resistors
To obtain the unknown resistance , the slider of the measure bridge has to be moved in a position so that the ammeter
displays zero current.
Depending on the chosen resistors, it is possible that you will detect a remaining current in every slider position. In that
case, you have to replace the comparison resistor with a different one. The same procedure is advised if the slider
position is close to the wire ends, because the measurement precision will otherwise decrease.
Determine the slider position on the ruler and the associated position = 100 cm − .
Replace and repeat the procedure until all five unknown resistors are determined.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
Note:
The power supply provides a current of up to 2 A at a voltage of 12 V. If the current should exceed that threshold due to e.g. a
small resistance in the circuit, the device will reduce the voltage to prevent damage. This is indicated by the glowing of the red
LED above the current selector. Nevertheless, the measurement and the results will not be affected by that short-circuit
protection.
To determine the resistance of two or three unknown resistors connected in series, the upper leg of the Wheatstone bridge
has to be altered according to Fig 5 or Fig. 6, respectively. Resistance is replaced by different combinations of the
unknown resistors, while one of the known resistors remains as .
Perform the measurements just as you did in task 1 for at least two combinations of two, and two combinations of three
resistors. Determine the corresponding slider positions (as well as ).
Fig. 5: Set-up for two unknown resistors Fig. 6: Set-up for three unknown resistors
connected in series. connected in series.
To study the effect of two resistors connected in parallel, the set-up has to be adjusted as shown in Fig. 7. Resistance is
substituted by two unknown resistors in a parallel circuit, while one of the known resistors serves as .
Repeat the steps of task 1 for at least three different combinations of resistors and determine the corresponding slider
positions (as well as ), again.
Fig. 7: Set-up of the upper leg of the Wheatstone

bridge with two unknown resistors connected in
parallel.

4. Optional: Determination of the electrical resistivity of CuNi.
Note: For this experimental part, additional equipment is needed.
One of the benefits of the Wheatstone bridge is the possibility to precisely determine a low resistance. For demonstration,

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
the resistance of several Constantan wires with varying diameters (and identical length = 100 cm) should be measured.
Thereof, the electrical resistivity of Constantan can be obtained.
For this purpose, should be replaced by a resistor of approximately 1 Ω, and the CuNi44 wire No. 1 of the resistance
board has to be connected as (see Fig. 8 and 9).
Again, the measurement has to be carried out like before until the bridge is balanced.
Register the slider position (as well as ) and repeat the measurement for the remaining CuNi44 wires No. 2, 3 and 5.
Fig. 8: Experimental set-up using the resistance board.
Fig. 9: Set-up of the connection box for use of the resistance

board with the Wheatstone bridge.
Evaluation
Kirchhoff's first law implies that the sum over all currents directed towards or away from a junction has to be zero. At the point of
balance, with no current flowing through the ammeter, the current flow must remain conserved along both legs of the
Wheatstone bridge. Thus Eq. 4 and 5 give the unknown resistance
(6)
.
1. Determination of unknown resistors
Calculate the resistance of the unknown resistors using Eq. 6 and the measured lengths on the slide wire. Reveal the indicated
values of the used resistors and compare them to the calculated results (see example in Tab. 1).
You will notice that the deviation increases for values measured close to the wire ends. Nevertheless, the absolute values of
measured and actual resistance are in good agreement. In order to reduce tolerance, exchange the comparison resistor with
a resistor of comparable magnitude to .

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
Table 1: Evaluation of unknown resistors with the Wheatstone bridge.
Labelling in Ω in mm in mm in Ω actual in Ω deviation in %
100 690 310 223 220 1.4
100 22 978 2.25 2 12.5
100 317 683 46.4 47 −1.3
100 51 949 5.4 5 8.0
100 875 125 700 680 2.9
Calculate the total resistance of the unknown resistors in the series circuit using Eq. 6 and the measured lengths on the slide
wire. Reveal the indicated values of the used resistors and compare them to the calculated results (see example in Tab. 2).
Table 2: Evaluation of resistors in a series circuit.
Used resistors in Ω in mm in mm in Ω actual in Ω* deviation in %
, 100 882 118 747.5 47 + 680 = 727 2.8
, 100 690 310 222.6 220 + 5 = 225 −1.1
, , 100 732 268 273.1 220 + 2 + 47 = 269 1.5
, , 100 909 91 998.9 220 + 47 + 680 = 947 5.5
* calculation according to Eq. 7
According to Kirchhoff's second law, the voltage drop across each leg of the Wheatstone bridge sums up to the total applied
voltage at the point of balance. Because of the constant current flow along each leg, Ohm's law gives a total resistance that is
equal to the sum of each individual resistance value in a series circuit
. (7)
Calculate the total resistance of the unknown resistors in the parallel circuit using Eq. 6 and the measured lengths on the
slide wire. Reveal the indicated values of the used resistors and compare them to the calculated results (see example in Tab. 3).
Table 3: Evaluation of resistors in a parallel circuit.
Used resistors in Ω in mm in mm in Ω actual in Ω** deviation in %
, 100 282 718 39.3 220 and 47 ⇒ 38.7 1.4
, 100 17 983 1.7 2 and 47 ⇒ 1.9 −9.9
, 100 44 956 4.6 5 and 680 ⇒ 5.0 −7.3

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
** calculation according to Eq. 8
According to Kirchhoff's first law, the total current in a parallel circuit of resistors equals the sum over the currents in each
individual branch whereas the voltage is the same for each component. Thus the total resistance of a parallel circuit can be
determined using Ohm's law and adding up the reciprocal values of each components' resistance:
. (8)
Adding a parallel branch to the circuit increases the current flow because the present resistance can be bypassed along the
extra branch. Therefore, the total resistance of a parallel circuit is always lower than the resistance value of the smallest
particular resistor (see Tab. 3).
4. Optional: Determination of the electrical resistivity of CuNi.
Calculate the total resistance of the wires in the parallel circuit using Eq. 6 and the measured lengths on the slide wire (see
example in Tab. 4).
Table 4: Resistance of various Constantan wires with length l = 1 m.
diameter in mm in mm in mm in Ω
1 392 608 0.645
0.5 717 283 2.53
0.7 564 436 1.29
0.35 840 160 5.25
Corresponding to Eq. 5, the electrical resistivity is an intrinsic property that can be calculated from the measured resistance of
the wire and its geometry
. (9)
Given that the resistance has been obtained for several wires made of the same material, the electrical resistivity of CuNi can be
determined with increased accuracy by plotting the resistance against . The proportionality factor corresponds to the
slope of the linear fit (as shown in Fig. 10)
. (10)
The slope of the fit in Fig. 10 gives an electrical resistivity of
(11)
that is in very good agreement with the literature value for Constantan of approximately 5.0⋅10−7 Ω⋅m.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 19/11/2018 16:40:12 | P2410200
Fig. 10: Resistance of a conductor wire as a

function of its geometry / .
Remark
In this experiment, the resistance values of the four resistors have been taken into account, only. Actually, the resistance
of the used cords, the connections as well as the ammeter could not be avoided and have been neglected as there is only
a minor influence on the results.
It is possible to determine very small resistances with the Wheatstone bridge gaining a high accuracy. Yet, the results lose
precision when moving the slider to the far end positions of the potentiometer. For best results, the slider should remain
close to the central position, and instead, the comparison resistor should be replaced until its magnitude matches that of
the unknown resistor.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 18.04.2017 09:18:52 | P2440100
Transformer (Item No.: P2440100)

Experiment:
Subtopic:
Area of Expertise: Education Level: Topic: Elektromagnetische
Elektrizität und
ILIAS Physik Hochschule Induktion und
Magnetismus
Faraday's Gesetz
Difficult 10 Minutes 20 Minutes 2 Students
Keywords:
Induction, magnetic flux, loaded transformer, unloaded transformer, coil
Introduction
Overview
An alternating voltage is applied to one of two coils (primary coil) which are located on a common iron core. The voltage induced
in the second coil (secondary coil) and the current flowing in it are investigated as functions of the number of turns in the coils
and of the current flowing in the primary coil.
Fig. 1: Experimental set-up for investigating the laws governing the transformer.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 18.04.2017 09:18:52 | P2440100
Equipment

1 PHYWE Multitap transformer, DC: 2/4/6/8/10/12 V, 5 A / AC: 2/4/6/8/10/12/14 V, 5 A 13533-93 1
2 Coil, 140 turns, 6 tappings 06526-01 2
3 Rheostat, 10 Ohm , 5.7A 06110-02 1
4 Clamping device 06506-00 1
5 Iron core, U-shaped, laminated 06501-00 1
6 Two-way switch, double pole 06032-00 1
7 DMM with NiCr-Ni thermo couple 07122-00 3
8 Iron core, short, laminated 06500-00 1
Tasks
The secondary voltage on the open circuited transformer is determined as a function
1. of the number of turns in the primary coil,

2. of the number of turns in the secondary coil,
3. of the primary voltage.The short-circuit current on the secondary side is determined as a function
4. of the number of turns in the primary coil,
6. of the primary current.With the transformer loaded, the primary current is determined as a function
7. of the secondary current,
9. of the number of turns in the primary coil.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 18.04.2017 09:18:52 | P2440100
Fig. 2: Connection of the multi-range meters
The experimental set-up is as shown in Fig. 1. The multi-range meters should be connected as shown in Fig. 2, while the
voltmeter can be used through a double-pole two-way switch for the primary and secondary circuit. The iron yoke should be
opened only when the supply is switched off, as otherwise excessive currents would flow. When loading the rheostat, the
maximum permissible load of 6.2 A for 8 minutes must not be exceeded. The power unit is non-grounded, so that the phase
relationship of current and voltage can be displayed with a dual-channel oscilloscope, if available.
At constant supply voltage, the primary current is adjusted using the rheostat in the primary circuit, with the secondary short-
circuited. When the transformer is loaded, the rheostat is used as the load resistor in the secondary circuit.

Student's Sheet
Printed: 18.04.2017 09:18:52 | P2440100
Theory and evaluation

If a current flows in a coil because of the alternating voltage applied, then according to Maxwell’s 2nd equation the induced
voltage in the coil is
(1)
where is the number of turns in the coil and is the magnetic flux density. This voltage is opposite in polarity to and
therefore
(2)
If there is a second coil (secondary coil) on the same iron core, so that the same flux density passes through the secondary
coil, then the induced voltage is
(3)
or, from (2)
(4)
Fig. 3: Secondary voltage on the unloaded transformer,

as a function of the primary voltage.
From the regression line to the measured values of Fig. 3 and the exponential statement
there follows the exponent
If a current flows in the secondary circuit, the resultant magnetic flux is superimposed on the flux density in the primary coil:
the a.c. impendance of the primary coil decreases as a result. Therefore the current in the primary coil increases with constant

Student's Sheet
Printed: 18.04.2017 09:18:52 | P2440100
supply voltage .
Since the flux produced by in the secondary coil is equal to the flux produced by the additional current in the primary
coil, it follows that
(5)
The quotient is called the transformation ratio.

If the load on the secondary side is purely resistive and if the current flowing in the primary when the transformer is unloaded is
small in comparison with , then is the total current flowing on the primary side.
Fig. 4: Secondary voltage of the unloaded transformer

as a function 1. of the number of turns in the secondary
coil, 2. of the number of turns in the primary coil.
Fig. 5: Secondary short-circuit current as a

function of the primary current in the transformer.
there follows the exponent

Student's Sheet
Printed: 18.04.2017 09:18:52 | P2440100
Fig. 6: Secondary short-circuit current of the

transformer as a function (1). of the number of
turns in the secondary coil, (2). of the number of
turns in the primary coil.
there follow the exponents
The losses of a transformer are mainly given by the ohmic resistance of the coil, the magnetisation and hysteresis losses of the
iron core, and losses through stray fields arising because the total primary magnetic flux does not pass through the secondary
coil, and vice versa. The inductive reactances and ohmic resistances of the primary and secondary circuits vary because of this.
Fig 7: Secondary current as a function of the

primary current, with the transformer loaded.


4 Point Method / Measurement of Low Resistances: (Item No.: P2410101)

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Student's

4 Point Method / Measurement of low resistances

Difficulty Preparation Time Execution Time Recommended Group Size

Difficult 1 Hour 1 Hour 2 Students

Additional Requirements: Experiment Variations:

Ohm's law, resistivity, contact resistance, conductivity, four-wire method of measurement

Fig. 1: Recording the current/voltage characteristic of a metal rod.

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Position Material Order nr. Quantity

Set-up and procedure

Settings of the amplifier: Low drift, , Amplification: , Timer constant: 0 sec.

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Fig. 2a: Measuring the contact resistance and resistivity of

Fig. 2b: Equivalent circuit diagram: , pd and

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Fig. 3: Current/voltage characteristics of a copper rod and an

Theory and evaluation

The regression lines of the measured values in Fig. 3 give

for the copper rod, and

for the aluminium rod.

The values of resistivity obtained using equation (1) are:

measured Bibliographic data at 20°

The aluminium rod is not pure, it contains other additions.

The copper wire in the cords has a cross section of .

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Fig. 4: Current/voltage characteristics of some connecting

Fig. 4: Current/voltage characteristics of some connecting cords of different lengths.

is determined from the slope of the straight lines in Fig. 4.

100 1 0.67 5.6 4.9

The average of the line/plug contact resistance values is:

In accordance with Figs. 2b,

For a connecting cord 100 mm long the measured values give:

The plug/double socket contact resistance is therefore of the order of

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Wheatstone bridge (Item No.: P2410200)

Difficulty Preparation Time Execution Time Recommended Group Size

Intermediate 1 Hour 2 Hours 2 Students

Additional Requirements: Experiment Variations:

Fig. 1: Experimental set-up of the Wheatstone bridge.

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Position No. Material Order No. Quantity

Position No. Material Order No. Quantity

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Set-up and procedure

Fig. 2: Wheatstone bridge, basic circuit

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

220 Ω 2 Ω 47 Ω 5 Ω 680 Ω

Fig. 3: Wheatstone bridge circuit diagram.

Fig. 4: Set-up of the upper leg of the Wheatstone bridge with

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

2. Determination of the total resistance of resistors in series.

3. Determination of the total resistance of resistors in parallel.

Fig. 7: Set-up of the upper leg of the Wheatstone

4. Optional: Determination of the electrical resistivity of CuNi.

Note: For this experimental part, additional equipment is needed.

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Fig. 8: Experimental set-up using the resistance board.

Fig. 9: Set-up of the connection box for use of the resistance

1. Determination of unknown resistors

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10 Tel: +49 551 604 - 0 info@phywe.de

Table 1: Evaluation of unknown resistors with the Wheatstone bridge.

Labelling in Ω in mm in mm in Ω actual in Ω deviation in %

100 690 310 223 220 1.4

220 Ω 2 Ω 47 Ω 5 Ω 680 Ω

, 100 882 118 747.5 47 + 680 = 727 2.8

, 100 690 310 222.6 220 + 5 = 225 −1.1

, , 100 732 268 273.1 220 + 2 + 47 = 269 1.5

, , 100 909 91 998.9 220 + 47 + 680 = 947 5.5

, 100 282 718 39.3 220 and 47 ⇒ 38.7 1.4

, 100 17 983 1.7 2 and 47 ⇒ 1.9 −9.9

, 100 44 956 4.6 5 and 680 ⇒ 5.0 −7.3

Table 4: Resistance of various Constantan wires with length l = 1 m.