Triangulation Survey

Geodetic Surveying and

Theory of Errors
Geodetic Surveying: Principle and Classification of triangulation system, Selection of base
line and stations, Orders of triangulation, Triangulation figures, Reduction to Centre,
Selection and marking of stations
Theory of Errors: Introduction, types of errors, definitions, laws of accidental errors, laws
of weights, theory of least squares, rules for giving weights and distribution of errors to
the field observations, determination of the most probable values of quantities.
 Points to be discussed
• Difference between Geodetic and Plane surveying
• What is Triangulation.
• Objectives of Triangulation.
• Principle of Triangulation.
• Triangulation figures or System.
• Classification of Triangulation.
• Inter visibility of triangulation stations (examples)
• Selection of triangulation stations.
• Measurements of Horizontal angle
 SURVEYING TECHNIQUES

SURVEYING

Horizontal Positioning Vertical Positioning

Astronomical methods
Triangulation Differential levelling
Trilateration Trigonometric levelling
Traverse Barometric levelling
Satellite techniques Satellite techniques
 Triangulation
• Method of determining distance based on
the principles of geometry

• A distant object is sighted from two well-

separated locations

• The distance between the two locations

and the angle between the line joining
them and the line to the distant object
 TRIANGULATION

• Utilizes geometric figures composed of

triangles.
• Horizontal angles and a limited no. of sides
(base lines) are measured
• By using angles and base line lengths, triangles
are solved trigonometrically and the positions
of stations (vertices) are calculated
 OBJECTIVE
• To establish relative and absolute positions
(Horizontal and Vertical) of a number of stations
accurately
Important Formulas in Trigonometry
Sine Law: b


c
Cosine a 
Law:
Other Important Trigonometric Identities
Sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

Sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y

Cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y

Cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

Example:
Solution:
 Objectives of triangulation
1. To establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys
of large areas, by terrestrial methods,
2. To establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of
large areas
3. To assist in the determination of the size and shape of the
earth by making observations for latitude, longitude and
gravity, and
4. To determine accurate locations of points in engineering works
such as :
o Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large
rivers.
o Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long
tunnels.
o Transferring the control points across wide sea channels,
large water bodies, etc.
o Detection of crustal movements, etc.
o Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.
 CLASSIFICATION
• First order (primary)- to determine the shape and
size of the earth, to cover a vast area like a country
• Second order (secondary)- network within first
order triangulation, for a region/province
• Third order (tertiary)- within second order
triangulation, for detailed engineering and
location surveys
CLASSIFICATION
 TRIANGULATION FIGURES

1. Single chain of triangles

2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
5. A combination of above systems.

Basic triangulation figures

TRIANGULATION LAYOUTS

Single chain of triangles: For narrow strip of terrain

TRIANGULATION LAYOUTS

Double chain of triangles:

Larger width area
TRIANGULATION LAYOUTS

Braced quadrilaterals
TRIANGULATION LAYOUTS

Centered triangles and polygons

PRIMARY TRIANGULATION FOR
LARGE COUNTRIES

GRID IRON SYSTEM CENTRAL SYSTEM

For Primary Triangulation

 Grid Iron System
 Primary triangulation is laid in series of chains of
triangles
 Usually run roughly along the meridians (north-south)
and along the perpendiculars to the meridians (east-west)
throughout the country
 Distance between two chains may vary from 150 km
to 250 km
 Area between the parallel and perpendicular series
of primary triangulation are covered by the
secondary and tertiary triangulation systems.
 Adopted in India, Austria, Spain and France
 Centered System

 Whole area of the survey is covered by a net work of

primary triangulation extending outwards in all
directions from the initial base line
 Base line is generally laid at the centre of the
country
 Used for the survey of an area of moderate extent
 Adopted in United Kingdom
TRIANGULATION LAYOUTS
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE LAYOUT OF TRIANGLES
• Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
• Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
• Centered polygons should be regular.
• The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done through
two or more independent routes.
• The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably two
routes form wellconditioned triangles.
• No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of
the series is used for computation.
• Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of
quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered
polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.
• The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and
very short lines should be avoided.
• The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum
progress.
• As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
 WELL CONDITIONED TRIANGLE
• any error in angular measurement has a minimum effect
upon the computed lengths
• To ensure that two sides of any triangle are equally affected,
these should, therefore, be equal in length.
• This condition suggests that all the triangles must,
therefore, be isosceles
• best shape of an isosceles triangle is that triangle whose
base angles are 56°14' each
• EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
• having an angle less than 30° or more than 120° should not be
considered.
 STRENGTH OF FIGURE
• factor to be considered in establishing a triangulation
system to maintain the computations within a
desired degree of precision
• U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys
– computations in triangulation involve use of angles of
triangle and length of one known side.
– other two sides are computed by sine law
– a given change in the angles, the sine of small angles
change more rapidly than those of large angles
– Angle less than 300 should not be used
square of the probable error (L²) that would occur in the sixth place of the
logarithm of any side, if the computations are carried from a known side
through a single chain of triangles after the net has been adjusted for the
side and angle conditions

d is the probable error of an observed direction in seconds of arc, and R is a term

which represents the shape of figure

D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the figure,
δA,δB ,δC = the difference per second in the sixth place of logarithm of the sine of the
distance angles A, B and C, respectively. (Distance angle is the angle in a triangle
opposite to a side), and
C = the number of geometric conditions for side and angle to be satisfied in each
figure. It is given by
n = the total number of lines including the known side in a figure,
n' = the number of lines observed in both directions including the known side,
S = the total number of stations, and
S' = the number of stations occupied.
 TRIANGULATION SURVEY

TRIANGULATION

FIELD WORK COMPUTATIONS

Reconnaissance
Adjustment of angles
Erection of signals/towers
Computation of sides
Measurement of baseline
Computation of latitude,
Measurement of horizontal
departure and azimuths
Angles
Computation of independent
Measurement of Vertical
Coordinates
Angles
Astronomical observations
 Field work
• Reconnaissance
• Erection of signals and towers
• Measurement of base line
• Measurement of horizontal angles
• Measurement of vertical angles
• Astronomical observations to determine
the azimuth of the lines.
 RECONNAISSANCE
• Examination of terrain to be surveyed.
• Selection of suitable sites for measurement of base lines.
• Selection of suitable positions for triangulation stations.
• Determination of intervisibility of triangulation stations.
• Selection of conspicuous well-defined natural points to be
used as intersected points.
• Collection of miscellaneous information regarding:
 Access to various triangulation stations
 Transport facilities
 Availability of food, water, etc.
 Availability of labour
 Camping ground.
Instruments for Reconnaissance
• Small theodolite and sextant for measurement of
angles.

• Prismatic compass for measurement of bearings.

• Steel tape.

• Aneroid barometer for ascertaining elevations.

• Heliotropes for ascertaining intervisibility.

• Binocular.

• Drawing instruments and material.

• Guyed ladders, creepers, ropes, etc., for climbing trees.

 Criteria for selection of triangulation stations

• Triangulation stations must be

selected carefully
• It can save a lot of time and funds by
keeping the following key points in mind
Triangulation stations should be intervisible.
Stations should be easily accessible
with instruments.
Station should form well-conditioned triangles.
Stations should be located so that the survey lines
are neither too small nor too long
Small sights cause errors of bisection and centering
and Long sights cause direction error as the signals
become too indistinct for accurate bisection
Stations should be useful for providing intersected
points and also for detail survey
Cost of clearing and cutting and building towers
should be minimum
No line of sight should pass over the industrial
areas to avoid irregular atmospheric refraction
Main lines are within the area to be surveyed
 Determination of intervisibility and height of
triangulation stations

• Intervisibility between stations is the

most essential condition in
triangulation
• When the distance between stations is too
large or the elevation difference is less both
signal and station to be elevated to overcome
the effect of the earth curvature
• The calculations of height of signal and
instrument depends upon the following
factors
 – Distance between the stations
– Relative elevation of the stations
– Profile of the intervening ground

Distance between the stations:

• If the intervening ground does not
obstruct the intervisibility, the distance
of horizon from the station of known
elevation is given by the following
formula
 Relative elevation of the stations

• Distance between two stations A and B

of heights hA and hB respectively is D.
• DA and DB are the distances of visible
horizon from A and B respectively and h’B is
the required elevation at B above the
datum
• Since DB = D – DA, h’B can be
calculated and checked whether to
be raised above the ground.

• Normally the line of sight is kept at

3m above the ground as the
refraction is maximum near the
ground
 Profile of the intervening ground
• This is done by plotting peaks of the
undulating ground to ensure the propose
line of sight passing above the obstructions
• The height of the station to be raised can
be calculated using previous equation or
using Captain G.T. McCaw’s formula
• Captain G.T. McCaw’s formula

h  hB  hA  hB  h   s  x cos ec  

2  1 2m 
1 1 x

2 2

2 s  2R 

A

• Practically
2 in most of the cases, the
zenith distance is very nearly equal to
90° and,
therefore, the value of cosec² ξ may be
taken approximately equal to unity
 2
1 x
s
2

h  hB  hA  h  hA  s  x  0.06735
1 2

 B

2
• If h > hc , the line of sight is free of
obstruction. In case , hc < h the height
of tower to raise the signal at B
 Example
• There are two stations P and Q at elevations of
200 m and 995 m, respectively. The distance of
Q from P is 105 km. If the elevation of a peak
M at a distance of 38 km from P is 301 m,
determine whether Q is visible from P or not. If
not, what would be the height of signal
required at Q so that Q becomes visible from P
?
 hC = 301
m

105 Km

• If the height of line of sight is greater than 995 m

the obstruction by intervening ground
• Otherwise no obstruction
 Q”
hC = 301 m
M”
P’ T
M’ Q’
M
105 Km
P Q

• We should find
QQ”
• QQ” = QQ’+Q’Q”
 • From Similar Triangle P’M’M” and
P’Q’Q”
Q'Q" M 'M Q'Q" M 'M
  1
"P'Q' P'M '  " PQ
PM
M ' M " MM "MM '
MM ' 0.06735MT  2 2

MT  PT  PM  PT  38Km 3

PT  3.853 h  3.853 200

PT  54.45Km

• Fro 3 MT  54.45Km  38Km

m 16.45Km
• Fro 2 MM ' 0.06735 (16.45)2
m MM ' 18.23m
M ' M " MM "MM '
M ' M " 301m 18.23m 
282.77m
• Fro 1 Q'Q" M 'M "

m PQ PM
105
Q'Q" 282.77m
38
Q'Q" 781.34m
 QQ" QQ'Q'Q"
QQ' 0.06735 QT 2
QT  QP PT
QT  105Km  54.45Km  50.55Km
QQ' 0.06735 50.55 m  172.10m
2

QQ" QQ'Q'Q" 172.10m 

781.34m QQ" 953.44m

• As the elevation 995 m of Q is more than 953.44 m,

the peak at M does not obstruct the line of sight.
• We should find the elevation of line of sight
at peak M
Q0

hC = 301 m
M0

P’ T
M’ Q’
M
105 Km
P Q

• From Similar Triangle P’M’M0 and P’Q’Q0

1
 Q'Q0 M 'M 0 Q'Q0 M 'M
  
0
P'Q' P' M ' PQ PM
Q'Q0  QQ0 QQ' 995m
172.10m Q'Q0  822.90m
PM
M ' M0  Q'Q
PQ
0
38
M ' M0  822.90m 
297.81m 105
MM 0  MM 'M ' M 0  18.23m  297.81m
MM 0 316.04m
• Elevation of the line of sight at M is
316.04m but elevation of peak is 301m
McCaw’s method
 SIGNALS AND TOWERS
• signal is a device erected to define the exact position of
a triangulation station so that it can be observed from
other stations
• tower is a structure over a station to support the
instrument and the observer, and is provided when the
station or the signal, or both are to be elevated
NON LUMINOUS SIGNALS –
Pole signal, target signal, pole and brush signal, beacons
LUMINOUS SIGNALS-
Sun signals – Heliotrope
Night signals - Oil lamps, electric lamps, acetylene lamps,
Magnesium lamps
 Station mark
• should be permanently marked on the ground
so that the theodolite and signal may be
centred accurately over them
• Guidelines
STATION MARK
 SIGNALS AND TOWERS
• signal is a device erected to define the exact position of
a triangulation station so that it can be observed from
other stations
• tower is a structure over a station to support the
instrument and the observer, and is provided when the
station or the signal, or both are to be elevated
NON LUMINOUS SIGNALS –
Pole signal, target signal, pole and brush signal, beacons
LUMINOUS SIGNALS-
Sun signals – Heliotrope
Night signals - Oil lamps, electric lamps, acetylene
lamps, Magnesium lamps
 NON- LUMINOUS SIGNALS

Pole signal Target signal Pole & brush signal Beacon

 Pole Signal
• It consists of a round pole painted black
and white in alternate and is supported
vertically over the station mark on a
tripod.

• Pole signals are suitable up to a distance of

6 km.
 Target Signal
• It consists of a pole carrying two square
or rectangular targets placed at right angles to
each other
• The targets are generally made of cloth
stretched on wooden frames
• Target signals are suitable up to a distance of
6 km
 Pole and Brush Signals
• It consists of a straight pole about 2·5 meter
long with a bunch of long grass tied
symmetrically round the top making a cross
• The signal is erected vertically over the station
mark by heaping a pile of stones up to 1·7
meters round the pole
• A rough coat of white wash is applied to make it
more conspicuous to be seen against a black
back ground
 Beacon
• It consists of red and white cloth tied
round the three straight poles.
• This can be easily centered over the
station marks
• Beacons are useful when simultaneous
observations are made at both the
stations.
 Properties of an Ideal Signal
• Should be clearly visible from a
distance against any back ground.

• It should provide easy and accurate

bisection by a telescope

• It should be capable of being

accurately centred over the station
mark.
 Phase of the signals
• When using circular shape signals the
illumination part depends on the direction of
sunlight (Due to lateral illumination)

• Observer has a tendency to bisect the center

of the illuminated part

• This cause an angular error known as Phase

error
 Phase error
• Observed angle must be reduced to the
corresponding center mark
• This effect is most common in cylindrical
signals
• Let “O” be the center of a signal at a distance
d from the observer and “O' “ be the false
center. Let r be the radius of the signal and A
is the observer’s position.
• Phase error is given
by
r cos2 ( / 2) r cos2 ( / 2)
e   206265seconds
d sin1"
O O'
d
• Where α is the angle
which the direction θ d
of sun make with OA Sun

A
LUMINOUS SIGNALS

SUN SIGNALS- HELIOTROPE

LUMINOUS SIGNALS

NIGHT SIGNALS
 TOWERS

Required in flat areas

to elevate instrument,
observer, reflectors
 TOWERS

Bilby tower- construction Completed tower

 TOWERS

Truck mounted observation tower Portable mast-for lights/reflectors

 MEASUREMENT OF BASELINE

• Most important part of triangulation

• Aligned and measured with great accuracy
• Forms the basis of computations of
triangulation system
• Equipment- standardized tapes, Hunter’s
short base, tacheometric measurements,
EDM
MEASUREMENT OF BASELINE
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

• Optical/digital theodolites for primary and

secondary triangulation
• Transit theodolites for tertiary triangulation
• Method of repetition in tertiary and
secondary triangulation
• Method of reiteration in primary
triangulation
 Triangulation Theodolites
• There are two types of
triangulation theodolites used for
precise work

–Repeating Theodolites

–Direction Theodolites
 Repeating Theodolites

• Characteristic feature of repeating

theodolites is that it has a double vertical
axis (Two centers and two clamps)
• Examples:
»Watts Microptic theodolite No 1
»Ordinary transit theodolites
»Vernier theodolites
 Direction Theodolites
• Direction theodolite has only one vertical
axis and a single horizontal clamp and
tangent screw which controls the rotation
about vertical axis

• Optical micrometers are used to read

fractional parts of the smallest divisions of
the graduated circle
 Direction Theodolites
• There are number of direction theodolites
used for first and second order
triangulations

• Examples:
– Wild T-2 theodolites
– Wild T-3 precision theodolites
– Wild T-4 Universal theodolites
 Methods of Horizontal Angle
Measurements
• Two methods for observing angles in
triangulation

–Repetition method
–Direction method
• In repetition methods each angle is measured
number of times using different parts of the
circle independently with a vernier theodolite
• In direction method several angles at a station
are measured in terms of directions of their sides
from the initial station. Direction theodolites are
used
• Normally Repetition theodolites are
recommended for second and third order
triangulation while direction theodolites are
for primary triangulation
DETERMINATION OF AZIMUTH OF A LINE

• Azimuth/true bearing of any line from a

station (Laplace station) is determined
• Methods- observations to star, by hour angle
of star or Sun, observation to circumpolar star,
knowing the magnetic declination at the place
 REDUCTION TO CENTRE

• To secure well conditioned triangles/ intervisibility,

objects such as chimneys, towers, are selected as
triangulation stations
• These can be sighted from other stations, but it is not
possible to occupy these stations for taking
observations
• In such cases a satellite station is established and
observations are taken and later reduced to what they
would have been if the main station was occupied
 REDUCTION TO CENTRE

A,B and C – Triangulation stations

S – satellite station for C
Observations are made from A, B and S

Measured quantities are

Distance AB is known from preceding triangle

 REDUCTION TO CENTRE

Let
 REDUCTION TO CENTRE

In triangleABC
 REDUCTION TO CENTRE

From triangles SAC and SBC

REDUCTION TO CENTRE
 REDUCTION TO CENTRE

Φ is the required angle which was

not measured at triangulation station C
 REDUCTION TO CENTRE

S is towards right of C S is inside triangle ABC

REDUCTION TO CENTRE

S is outside triangle ABC

 COMPUTATIONS

Adjustment of observed angles

Station adjustment
Figure adjustment

Computation of lengths of sides

Computation of azimuths of all sides
Computation of latitudes and departures
Computations of independent coordinates
 Triangulation Adjustments
• Even after exercising care and precautions
unavoidable error are with observations

• So observations should be adjusted

distributing the observational errors

• Most accurate method for adjustment is least

square adjustment but it is complicated as all
the angles are simultaneously involved
• Adjustment can be achieved adjusting
angles, stations and figures separately

• After figure adjustment sides are

calculated using sine rule

• Positions of the points are

determined calculating the geodetic
coordinates
 Angle adjustment
• There are number of geometrical conditions to be
satisfied in any triangulation figure
• All the conditions never meet due to errors in the
observations
• Necessary to adjust the angles to find the most
probable or best values
• Correction to be applied is directly proportional
to weight and also to the square of probable
error
• Most probable value is the arithmetic mean or
weight arithmetic mean
 Station adjustment
• Determination of most probable values of
the angles at a station to satisfy geometric
consistency
• Obtained error is distributed equally if the
weights are equal otherwise error is
distributed inversely proportional to the
weight
• If different angles are measured normal
equations are formed and solved
simultaneously
 Figure Adjustment
• In any triangulation system determination of
most probable values of the angle to fulfill
the geometric conditions is called figure
adjustment

• Best or most probable value can be

obtained by the method of least square
adjustment (Also known as Rigid method)
 CO-ORDINATES

Refer example problem

COMPUTING DEPARTURES &
LATITUDES

• Compute by: Dep = L sin  Lat = L cos 

• Where:  = azimuth L = length of line
North (+Y)
G
Lat. FG = L cos 
L
F

East (+X)
Dep. FG = L sin
 COMPUTATION OF INDEPENDENT
COORDINATES
• Assuming the coordinates of one station, the
coordinates of other stations can be
computed