SURVEYING

UNIT - I

SIRAM VENKAT RAMANA,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
RGUKT,
BASARA.
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
According to this principle, it is always
desirable to carryout survey work from
whole to part. This means, when an
area is to be surveyed, first a system of
control points is to be established
covering the whole area with very high
precision. Then minor details are
located by less precise methods. The
idea of working this way is to prevent
the accumulation of errors
If P and Q are the two reference points
on the ground, any other point, such as
R, can be located by any of the direct
methods shown in the above figures.
But, although a single method is
sufficient to locate the relative position
of ‘R’ with respect to reference points P
and Q, it is necessary to adopt at least
any two methods to fix the position of
point ‘R’.
PRIMARY TYPES OF SURVEYING
 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON NATURE OF SURVEY

a) Topographical Surveys
They are carried out determine the position of natural features of a region such as rivers,
streams, hills etc. and artificial features such as roads and canals. The purpose of such
surveys is to prepare maps and such maps of are called topo-sheets.

b) Hydrographic Survey
Hydro-graphic survey is carried out to determine M.S.L. (Mean Sea Level), water spread
area, depth of water bodies, velocity of flow in streams, cross-section area of flow etc.

c) Astronomical Survey
The Astronomical Survey is carried out to determine the absolute location of any point on
the surface of earth. The survey consists of making observations to heavenly bodies such as
stars.

d) Engineering Survey
This type of survey is undertaken whenever sufficient data is to be collected for the purpose
of planning and designing engineering works such as roads, bridges and reservoirs.
 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON NATURE OF SURVEY

e) Archeological Survey
This type of survey is carried out to gather information about sites that are important from
archeological considerations and for unearthing relics of antiquity.

f) Photographic Survey
In this type of survey, information is collected by taking photographs from selected points
using a camera.

g) Aerial Survey
In this type of survey data about large tracks of land is collected by taking
photographs from an aeroplane.

h) Reconnaissance Survey
In this type of survey, data is collected by marking physical observation and some
measurements using simple survey instruments.
 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

a) Chain Surveying
Chain surveying is the basic and oldest type of surveying. The principle involved in chain
survey is of triangulation. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of small
triangles.
Angles of triangles must not be less than 30 degree and greater than 120 degree.
Equilateral triangles are considered to be ideal triangles. No angular measurements are
taken, tie line and check lines control accuracy of the work. This method is suitable on level
ground with little undulations and area to be survey is small.
SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

b) Compass Surveying
 Compass survey uses the principle of traversing. This method does not requires
the need to create triangles.
 It uses a prismatic compass for measuring magnetic bearing of line and the
distance is measured by chain.
 A series of connecting lines is prepared using compass and measuring distances
using chain.
 Interior details are located using offset from main survey lines.
 They suitable for large area surveying crowded with many details. It can be used
to survey a river course.
 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

b) Compass Surveying types

 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

c) Plane Table Surveying

 The principle of plane table survey is parallelism. They are plotted directly on paper
with their relative position.
 The rays are drawn from station to object on ground. The table is placed at each of the
successive station parallel to the position of the last station.
 They are basically suitable for filling interior detailing and is recommended when great
accuracy is not required.
 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

d) Theodolite Surveying
The theodolite is an instrument used mainly for accurate measurement of the horizontal
and vertical angles.
They are accurate to measure up 20" angles. Theodolite can be used to measure:
1. Horizontal angles
2. Vertical angles
3. Deflection angle
4. Magnetic bearing
5. Horizontal distance between two points
6. Vertical height between two points
7. Difference in elevation
 SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING BASED ON TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

e) Tacheometric Surveying
Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are
determined by taking angular observations with an instrument known as a tacheometer.
Tacheometer is nothing but a transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm and an
anallatic lens.
There is no need for chaining in such survey.
The principle of Tacheometer is based on property of isosceles triangle, where ratio of the
distance of the base from the apex and the length of the base is always constant. Different
form of stadia diaphragm commonly used:
SYMBOLS USED IN SURVEYING

Conventional symbols are widely

accepted signs or sign systems
which signify an idea or concept. They
represent different features on a map
and are not drawn to scale. They are
important because: Symbols can be
used to depict features like cities, roads
and railways.

It is not possible to draw, on a map, the

actual shape and size of different
features such as buildings, roads,
bridges, trees, railway lines or a well.
So, they are shown by using certain
letters, shades, colors, pictures and
lines These symbols give a lot of
information in a limited space.0
TRIANGULATION METHOD OF SURVEYING
TRIANGULATION METHOD OF SURVEYING
 TRIANGULATION METHOD OF SURVEYING

1. Base Lines
It is the main and longest line from which all measurements to demonstrate details of the
work are taken. The base line passes through the center of the field.
2. Chain Line (Main Survey) Lines
The lines that join main stations are termed as chain line or main survey lines.
3. Tie (Subsidiary) Lines
It joins two fixed points on the chain line. The advantage of tie line appears while checking
surveying accuracy in locating interior details such as buildings and paths.
4. Check (Proof) Lines
It joins triangle apex to some fixed points on any two sides of a triangle. It is used to examine
the accuracy of the framework. The length of check line measured on ground shall be
consistent with its length on the plan.
TRIANGULATION METHOD OF SURVEYING
 TRAVERSING METHOD OF SURVEYING
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of
an angle measuring instrument and tape or chain respectively.
Types of Surveying
There are two types of traverse surveying. They are:
Closed traverse: When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, it is known
as a closed traverse.
Open traverse: When the lines form a circuit ends elsewhere except starting point, it is said
to be an open traverse.
Suitability
The closed traverse is suitable for locating the boundaries of lakes, woods, etc and for a
survey of large areas. the open traverse is suitable for surveying a long narrow strip of land
as required for a road of the canal or the coastline.
PHASES OF SURVEYING
 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS & ACCESSORIES
Chain
The chain is composed of 100 or 150 pieces of
galvanized mild steel wire called links, joined together
with oval rings and handles at both ends. Here the area is
divided into a network of triangles, sides of various
triangles are measured directly in the field with a chain or
tape.
It is the simplest method of surveying and is suitable for
small areas.

Arrows
Arrows are used to facilitate chains and tape. They are
used to mark the end of a chain. The one-pointed part of
an arrow is inserted into the ground and the other is
attached with
a ring.

Ranging rod
Ranging Rods are the vertical rods used to mark survey
points having 2-3 m height. It is painted with bands of
red & white, 20 cm each. These rods are used to range
intermediate points of a survey.
 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS & ACCESSORIES
Pegs
Pegs are used to mark the survey stations and end points of survey
lines on the ground. These pegs are also used to mark the
intersection of lines and other such points which are more or less
permanent. Pegs are generally made of wood (preferably hard
timber) with square sections and tapers at one end. The most
common size of these pegs are 25 mm x 25 mm x 150 mm long, 40
mm x 40 mm x 400 mm long

Clinometer
A Clinometer is used for measuring the angle of slope of the
ground. A light plumb bob is suspended from the centre of the semi-
circle. When the ground surface is horizontal, then the plumb bob
marks zero reading. When the ground surface is sloping, the plumb
bob marks the corresponding reading and thus gives the slope of the
ground.

Cross-staff
It is a simple instrument used for setting out the offsets to the chain
line from a given point. It is also used for setting out a right angle.
For very high accuracy demanding works, a theodolite is used to lay
off right angles to the chain line.
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS & ACCESSORIES
 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS & ACCESSORIES
1) Cloth or Linen Tape
These tapes are made of linen /cloth or synthetic material and are available in lengths of 10-30 m
and widths of 12-15 mm.
Disadvantages of Cloth or Linen Tape are:
It is affected by moisture and gets shrunk.
Its length gets changed by stretching.
It is likely to twist during measurement.

2) Invar Tape
These are made up of an alloy of nickel (36%) and steel (64%). These tapes have a very low
coefficient of thermal expansion (0.122 x 10-6/°C). These are available in lengths of 30, 50 and 100
m and width of 6 mm.
Advantages of Invar Tape
Highly precise.
It is less affected by temperature changes in comparison to the other tapes.
Disadvantages of Invar Tape
It is soft hence deforms easily.
It requires much attention in handling, hence not used for ordinary works

3) Steel Tape
It is more accurate than metallic tapes. They are made up of steel or stainless steel strips. These are
available in lengths of 1-50 m and width of 6-10 mm. At the end of the tape a brass ring is attached,
the outer end of which is zero point of the tape. Steel tapes cannot be used in the ground with
vegetation and weeds.
TYPES OF RANGING
TYPES OF RANGING
OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEYING
OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEYING
 TYPES OF ERRORS IN SURVEYING
There are mainly three types of errors in surveying.
a. Systematic errors or cumulative errors
b. Mistakes
c. Accidental errors or compensating errors

Systematic error or Cumulative error

Systematic errors are always of the same magnitude and sign under specified similar conditions of
measurement and can be classified as positive or negative depending on whether they make the result too
large or too little. Because systematic errors have the effect of piling up in just one direction, they are also
known as cumulative errors.

Mistakes
Inattention, inexperience, carelessness, poor judgment, or confusion in the observer's thinking are all
examples of mistakes. An error that goes undiscovered has a significant impact on the end outcome.

Accidental errors or compensating error

Compensating error or accidental errors remain after the exclusion of mistakes and systematic errors, and
they arise for several causes beyond the observer's control. Compensating mistakes occur in one or both
directions and are hence referred to as compensating errors. These errors are subject to the rule of
probability, and the theory of error only applies to unintentional errors. Accidental errors are generally of
small magnitude, and they occur due to change in the atmospheric conditions, human limitations,
imperfections in the instruments, and so on.
 TYPES OF ERRORS IN SURVEYING
1. PROPORTIONAL ERRORS
When a chain is manufactured, it is intended to be a specific length, plus or minus some tolerance. It may
or may not actually meet those specifications. When a field measurement is taken, the acceptable error
may be more or less than what the chain was designed for.
For high precision work, we need to measure several known distances and determine if this chain is the
proper length. If not, we need next to determine if the error is in one or more specific locations along the
chain or if the error is proportional along the length.
If a known 50 foot distance is measured to be 49.995 feet and a known 100 foot distance to be 99.99 feet,
all measurements made with that chain should be multiplied by a factor of 100/ 99.99 (known distance
over measured distance).

2. CONSTANT ERRORS
If a chain has been kinked or broken and spliced back together, there is a good chance that there will be a
consistent error for any distances measured using that portion of the chain.
This error needs to be added or subtracted as appropriate each time.

3. SAG CORRECTION
When a chain is suspended from each end and not supported along its length, the weight of the chain
causes it to sag and pulls the two ends toward each other. It is impossible to exert enough outward force to
fully overcome the sag.
For all measurements, adequate tension should be applied to minimize the effective shortening of the
chain. For precise measurements, a correction should be applied using the formula given below.
 TYPES OF ERRORS IN SURVEYING
4. TENSION CORRECTION
While a certain amount of tension is desirable to help offset the sag effect, it will also stretch the chain.
Steel is generally thought of as not being very easily stretched and indeed it is not. That is one of the
reasons it is used for making chains. But steel will still stretch to some degree if tension is applied.
When a chain is checked against a known distance, the applied tension should be controlled. Subsequent
precise measurements should be made using the same tension, or if not, a correction should be applied.
The formula for this is also mentioned below.

5. TEMPERATURE CORRECTION
Whatever material is used to make a chain, that material will expand and contract with any
change in temperature. Some materials are more affected than others, but every chain will
change length somewhat if warmed or cooled.
If precise measurements are needed, an adjustment needs to be made for the change in
temperature between the current temperature and the temperature at the time the chain was
checked against a known distance. This formula is also given below.
TYPES OF CORRECTIONS IN SURVEYING
 NUMERICALS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
1. A surveyor measured the distance between two points on the plan drawn to a scale of
1 cm = 40 m and the result was 468 m. Later, however, he discovered that he used a
scale of 1 cm = 20 m. Find the true distance between the points.

Measured length = 468m

R.F of wrong scale = 1cm / 20m = 1cm / 2000cm = 1/2000 or 1:2000
R.F of correct scale = 1cm / 40m = 1cm / 4000cm = 1/4000 or 1:4000
Correct length = (R.F of wrong scale/R.F of correct scale)×Measured length
∴ Correct length = ( (1/2000) / (1/4000) ) × 468 = 936 m

2. The area of the plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 10 meters to 1 cm measures
now as 100.2 sq. cm as found by a planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk so that
a line originally 10cm long now measures 9.7cm only. Find
i. Shrunk scale
ii. true area of the survey.
NUMERICALS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
 NUMERICALS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
5. A 20m chain was found to be 10cm too long after chaining a distance of 1500m. It
was found to be 18cm too long at the end of the day’s work after chaining a total
distance of 2900m. Find the true distance if the chain was correct before the
commencement of the work.

6. The area of the plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 10 meters to 1cm measures
now as 100.2 sq. cm as found by planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk so that a
line originally 10cm long now measures 9.7cm only. There was also a note on the plan
that the 20m chain used was 8cm too short. Find the true area of the survey.
NUMERICALS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
NUMERICALS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
NUMERICALS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
 NUMERICALS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
7. The length of a line measured with a 20-meter chain was found to be 250 meters.
Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was 10cm too long.
Incorrect length of the chain (L’) = 20 + (10/100) = 20.1m
Correct length of the chain (L) = 20m
Measured length (l’) = 250m
Hence true length of the line = l’×(L’/L) = 250×(20.1/20) = 251.25 meters

8. The length of a survey line was measured with a 20m chain and was found to be
equal to 1200 meters. As a check, the length was again measured with a 25m chain and
was found to be 1212m. On comparing the 20m chain with the test gauge, it was found
to be 1 decimeter too long. Find the actual length of the 25m chain used.
 COMPASS SURVEYING
Principle of Compass Surveying
The principle of a survey is traversing, that is consisting of a series of connected lines the
bearing of the lines is measured by a prismatic compass and the linear dimensions are
measured by a chain survey.
This compass survey does not require any formulation of a triangle network and
this compass survey is suitable for large areas, full of many details and undulating.
The Compass survey is not suitable for those areas where the local attraction is suspected
due to the presence of magnetic substances like iron ore deposits, electric cables,
steel structures, and many more.

Precautions for Compass Surveying

These are some of the precautions that can be useful while conducting a compass traverse.
1) The centering and the leveling should be done perfectly.
2) The readings should be taken along the line of sight, not from any other side.
3) Try to select stations that are far away from the magnetic effects.
4) Observer should also avoid taking any magnetic substance.
5) To stop the rotation of the graduated ring, the brake pin should be pressed gently not
suddenly.
COMPASS SURVEYING – BEARINGS AND DECLINATION
1.True meridian
True meridian through a point is the line in which a plane, thus passes through the true north
and south poles, intersects with the surface of the earth. It thus passes through the true north
and south. The direction of the true meridian through a point can be established by
astronomical observations.
True Bearing: True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the true
meridian through one of the extremities of the line. Since the direction of the true meridian
through a point remains fixed, the true bearing of a line is a constant quantity.

2. Magnetic Meridian
The magnetic bearing through a point is the direction shown by a freely floating and
balanced magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces. The direction of magnetic
meridian can be established with the help of a magnetic compass.
Magnetic bearing: The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes
with the magnetic meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A magnetic
compass is used to measure it.
 COMPASS SURVEYING
Compass surveying is generally adopted for angular measurements and linear
measurements, for determining the location of particular objects. Here the liner
or horizontal measurements are measured with the use of a chain survey; the chain survey
can be used when the survey area is to be small and flat.
For compass surveying, the compass is the main instrument. It is one type of
small surveying instrument with having a magnetic needle and graduated circle and line of
sign. The compass instrument consists of a cylindrical metal box with a top glass cover and
its diameter is 8 to 12 cm.
In the exact centre of the compass, one magnetic needle is fixed, which is attached to the
graduated aluminium ring. The prism helps to read reflect and easy to read
out the reading on the graduated ring.
An opposite of the prism, the object vane is having horsehair which is help to bisect an
object. If the survey area is large, crowded with details, undulated then the principle of
chainage survey is not applicable. In that case, the traversing method is used for the survey.
 SURVEYOR’S COMPASS
Surveyor Compass is the same as the prismatic compass but the only difference is it uses a
quadrant bearing method (0 to 90 degrees) for taking an observation reading.
Surveyor compass has plain eye silt instead of the prismatic compass;
prismatic compasses have an eye hole and eye slit with prism. The surveyor compasses have
a magnetic pointed needle instead of a broad needle.
Advantages of Compass Survey
1. Compass survey is suitable for retracing the old survey.
2. The compass survey instrument is lightweight and portable, so easy to carry with
a tripod stand.
3. In compass survey, the instrument is easy to set up.
4. An error of single line survey does not affect the other survey line.
 PRISM ATIC COMPASS
Prismatic Compass was invented by Charles and panted in 1812. The Prismatic compass is
a surveying instrument, which is used to determine an angle between transverse, direction,
and waypoint.
As the name suggests, a prismatic compass has a prism for taking observation reading
preciously. Also, prismatic compasses are portable magnetic compasses that can be either
used as a fit on the tripod stand or hand instrument.
A prismatic compass can be taking a reading and sighting at the same time, without
changing the position. The Least Count Reading of the Prismatic Compass is 30 minutes
(30’), also the prismatic compass follows the Whole circle Bearing system ( 0 to 360
degrees) for finding the Angle.
The Prismatic Compass is light in weight so that easy to carry and more workable. The
main point is kept in mind while carrying out a survey is, to avoid local attraction or free
rotation of the magnetic needle of the compass.
SURVEYOR’S COMPASS Vs PRISMATIC COMPASS
COMPASS SURVEYING – W.C.B Vs Q.B
COMPASS SURVEYING – W.C.B Vs Q.B
COMPASS SURVEYING – BEARINGS AND DECLINATION

Magnetic Declination
The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and the true meridian is called
magnetic declination.
Declination west
It occurs when the north end of the magnetic needle is pointed towards the west side
of the true meridian.
Declination east
It occurs when the north end of the magnetic needle is pointed towards the east side of
the true meridian.
DECLINATION
ISOGONIC LINES & AGONIC LINES
 LOCAL ATTRACTION
Local attraction is an error include a needle of magnetic compass due to presence of local
magnetic object like: current passing electric wire, steel bridge, some other object etc
Due to the presence of local magnetic objects, the magnetic needle is deflected from actual
magnetic flux direction.
Observation
1). If for any line |FB-BB| ≠ 180 then stations are affected by local attraction.
2). If for any line |FB-BB| =180 then there are two possibilities.
Both stations are free from local attraction.
Both stations are affected by the same value of local attraction.
Note. For calculation point of view only the first condition is consider.
3). If any station is affected by local attraction then all the bearing measured from that each
station will have the same value of local attraction hence same correction also.
Internal/external angles at any station will not be affected by local attraction even if stations
are affected.
 FORE BEARINGS & BACK BEARING
Fore Bearing And Back Bearing
Bearing measured from one station to adjacent next station in the direction of
traverse is called fore bearing.
Bearing measured from one station to adjacent previous stations in the opposite
direction to traverse is called back bearing.
That fore bearing and back bearing of a line have a difference of 180°.
INCLUDED ANGLES
 ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEYING
1)Instrumental Error
Instrumental errors occur due to faulty adjustments of the instruments. The reasons for
instrumental errors are mentioned below:
•The needle of the compass may not be perfectly straight.
•The pivot point may be eccentric.
•The ring’s graduations may not be uniform.
•The pivot point is dull.
•The needle is sluggish due to magnetism.
•The needle neither moves horizontally nor moves freely on the pivot due to the dip of a needl
2)Errors due to manipulation and sighting
The following reasons that are mentioned below for Personal errors:
•Due to inaccurate centering of the compass over the station.
•Due to inaccurate leveling of compass box when the instrument is set up.
•Improper bisection of ranging rods at the station.
•By taking wrong readings through the graduations of the prism.
•Carelessness in recording the observed readings.
•3)Due to anyErrors
Natural magnetic object nearby.
These types of errors may occur due to various natural causes which affect the working of the
compass. There are some reasons:
•Due to magnetic changes in the atmosphere like on a cloudy or stormy day.
•The magnetic declination may vary.
•Local attraction that can be due to proximity steel structures, electric lines.
 ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEYING
Methods for the correction of Local Attraction
1) By calculating the included angles at the affected stations.
2) By checking the required corrections, starting from the unaffected bearing.
Method of Application of correction
1)First Method
The angles of the traverse are calculated from the observed bearing.
After that, an angular check is applied by which the sum of interior angles should be equal
to this equation.
If it’s not applicable then the total error is equally divided among all the angles of the
traverse.
This method is laborious and is not generally employed.

2)Second Method
In the second method, there is no need to calculate the angles of the traverse.
In this method, the unaffected line is first detected.
Then by the reference of this line, the bearing of other affected lines is corrected.
This method is easy to understand and generally applied for correction.
 NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING
Convert the following quadrantal bearing into whole circle bearing:
1. N 30°30՛ E
2. S 50° E
3. S 20°45՛ W
4. N 25° W

The magnetic bearing of a line OP is 89°45 ՛. Determine the true bearing if – a) The
magnetic declination is 5°30՛ E. b) The magnetic declination is 4°15՛ W.
The magnetic bearing of a line is N46°15'E. If the magnetic declination is 6°30' East,
calculate the true bearing.
The magnetic bearing of line AB is 147°30'. What will be the true bearing if the magnetic
declination is 4°15' W.
The true bearing of a line AB is 217°30'. If the magnetic declination is 5°E, calculate the
magnetic bearing.
NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING

Here DE survey line has a 180° difference. It

simply means DE is free from Local
attractions. Thus, we have to correct the
remaining AB, BC, CD, & EA survey lines.
NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING
NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING

As survey line, DE and EA have a 180°

difference. They are free from the local
attraction. Now, we have to find the correct
angle and bearings of survey lines AB, BC,
and CD.
NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING
NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING

As no survey line has a 180° difference. They

all have a local attraction. Now, we have to find
the correct angle and bearings of survey lines
AB, BC, CD, DE & EA.
NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING
NUMERICALS IN COMPASS SURVEYING