Survey Unit 1

UNIT 1
SURVEYING
Surveying is defined as the science of making measurements of the earth specifically the surface
of the earth. This is being carried out by finding the spatial location (relative/absolute) of points
on or near the surface of the earth.
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath the
surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction or
elevation.
Different methods and instruments are being used to facilitate the work of surveying. The
primary aims of field surveying are:
• to measure the Horizontal Distance between points.
• to measure the Vertical elevation between points.
• to find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with reference to
any arbitrary direction and
• to find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference to a fixed
direction.
These parameters are utilised to find out the relative or absolute coordinates of a point / location.
Importance of Surveying to Civil Engineers

The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as construction of highways,
bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based upon surveying measurements.
Moreover, during execution, project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points
established by surveying.
Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering projects. Other principal works
in which surveying is primarily utilized are
• to fix the national and state boundaries;
• to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;
• to establish control points;
• to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping; and
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• to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth
Objectives of Surveying
• To collect field data;
• To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
• To analyse and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of actual engineering
works.
• To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.
NOTE: Polar Axis is shorter than equatorial axis by 42.95 Kms.
Divisions of Surveying
The approximate shape of the earth can best be defined as an oblate tri-axial ovaloid. But, most
of the civil engineering works, concern only with a small portion of the earth which seems to
be a plane surface. Thus, based upon the consideration of the shape of the earth, surveying is
broadly divided into two types.
• Geodetic Surveying
• Plane Surveying
• Geodetic Surveying
In this branch of surveying, the true shape of the earth is taken into consideration.
This type of surveying is being carried out for highly precise work and is adopted for surveying
of large area.
• Plane Surveying
In this method of surveying, the mean surface of the earth is considered to be a plane surface.
This type of survey is applicable for small area (less than 200 square kilometre). Thus for most
of the Civil Engineering projects, methods of plane surveying are valid.
This course is restricted to the different aspects of plane surveying. Henceforth, in this course
work, the word surveying implies plane surveying.
Fundamental assumptions in Plane surveying

• All distances and directions are horizontal;
• The direction of the plumb line is same at all points within the limits of the survey; • All
angles (both horizontal and vertical) are plane angles;

• Elevations are with reference to a datum.
Classifications of Surveying
A) Based on the Purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been
classified into:
• Control surveying: To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.
• Land surveying: To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as
property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.
• Topographic survey: To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as
and man-made features including elevation.
• Engineering survey: To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of
engineering projects. Three broad steps are
1) Reconnaissance survey: To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.
2) Preliminary survey: To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for
planning and design.
3) Location survey: To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of the
project.
• Route survey: To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals,
pipelines, and other linear projects.
• Construction surveys: Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines, grades,
and for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the structural
design has been done).
• Astronomic surveys: To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and
azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation.
• Mine surveys: To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining
purposes.
B) Based on the Nature of the Survey
•Land Surveying
➢ Topographical Surveys: This is made to determine the natural features of a country

such as rivers, streams, lakes, hills etc. & artificial features as roads, railways, canals,
towns and villages.
➢ Cadastral Surveys: This is related to fixing of property lines, calculation of land area,
or to transfer the land property from one owner to another. It is also used to fix the
boundaries of municipalities and of State and Federal jurisdiction.
➢ City Surveying: This is connected to construction of streets, water supply systems,
sewers etc.
•Marine & Hydrographic Survey: deals with bodies of water for purpose of navigation, water
supply, harbour works or for the determination of mean sea level.
•Astronomical Survey: This survey offers means of determining the absolute location of any
point or the absolute location and direction of any line on the surface of the earth. This consists
in observations to the heavenly bodies such as the sun or any fixed star.
C) Based on the object of survey:
•Engineering Survey: This determines the quantities or to afford sufficient data for the
designing of engineering works such as roads and reservoirs, or those connected with sewage
disposal or water supply.
•Military Survey: This is used for determining points of strategic importance.
•Mine Survey: This is used for the exploring mineral wealth.
•Geological Survey: This is used for determining different strata in the earth's crust.
•Archaeological Survey: This is used for unearthing relics of antiquity.
D) Based on instruments used:
• Chain survey
• Theodolite survey
• Traverse survey
• Triangulation survey
• Tacheometric survey
• Plane table survey
• Photogrammetric survey
• Aerial survey

Principles of Surveying
• Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference
The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by measurement

fromatleast two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed. Let P and
Q be the reference points on the ground. The distance PQ can be measured accurately and the
relative positions of P and Q can be plotted on the sheet to some scale. The points P and Q will
thus serve as reference points for fixing the relative positions of other points. Any other point,
such as R, can be located by any of the following direct methods. Refer Fig. 1.
Fi
g. 1.1
• Working from whole to part
The second ruling principle of serving, whether plane or geodetic is to work from whole to
part. It is very essential to establish first a system of control points and to fix them with higher
precision. Minor control points can then be established by less precise methods and the details
can then be located using these minor control points by running minor traverses. The idea of
working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control and localise
minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater magnitudes.
Units of Measurements
Four Kinds of Measurements used in Plane Surveying.
!. Horizontal Distance
2. Vertical Distance
3. Horizontal Angle
4. Vertical Angle

Basic Units of Length
inches, yards (Bristish Units)
mm, cm, dm, hm, km, mile (metric units)
Basic Units of Angle Measurement
Angle is the difference in directions of two intersecting lines.
Radian is the unit of plane angle.
There are three popular system of of angular measurements.
1. Sexagesimal System : circumference , degree, minute
1 min = 60" (seconds of arc)
2. Centesimqal System : grads, centigrad
3. Hors System
1 min = 60s of timeime
Introduction to measurement of distance:
The horizontal distance between points, projected onto a horizontal plane, is required to be
measured in order to prepare plan or map of the area surveyed
Methods of measurement
In surveying there are several methods for measurement of distance. These are
1. Direct methods;
2. Optical methods; and
3. Electro-magnetic method
Direct Methods
1. Pacing
2. Measurement with passometer

3. Measurement with pedometer
4. Measurement by odometer and speedometer
5. Chaining
1. Pacing: The method consists in counting the number of paces between the two points of a
line.The length of the line can then be computed by knowing the average length of the pace.
The length of the pace varies with the individual, and also with the nature of the ground, the
slope of the country and the speed of pacing. A length of pace more nearly that of one's natural
step is preferable.
2. Measurement with passometer: Passometer is an instrument shaped like a watch and is

carried in pocket or attached to one leg. The mechanism of the instrument is operated by
motion of the body and it automatically registers the number of paces, thus avoiding the
monotonyand strain of counting the paces, by the surveyor. The number of paces registered by
the passometer can then be multiplied by the average length of the pace to get the distance.
3. Pedometer: Pedometer is a device similar to the passometer except that, adjusted to the
length of the pace of the person carrying it, it registers the total distance covered by any
number of paces.
4. Odometer and Speedometer: The odometer is an instrument for registering the number of
revolutions of a wheel. The well-known speedometer works on the principle that it is fitted to
a wheel which is rolled along the line whose length is required. The number of revolutions
registered by the odometer can then be multiplied by the circumference of the wheel to get the
distance.
5. Chaining: Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring distance either with the
help of a chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of making direct measurements.
For work of ordinary precision, a chain can be used, but for higher precision tape or special
bar can be used.
Types of Chains
1. Metric chains
2. Gunter's chain or Surveyor's chain

3. Engineer's chain
4. Revenue chain
5. Steel band or band chain.
1. Metric chains: Metric chains are generally available in lengths of 5, 10, 20 and 30 metres.

10-metre Chain
20-metre Chain
30-metre Chain
2. Gunter's chain or Surveyor's chain: Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain is 66 ft. long and
consists of 100 links, each link being 0.6 ft. or 7.92 inches long.
3. Engineer's chain: The engineer's chain is 100 ft. long and consists of 100 links, each link
being 1 ft. long.
4. Revenue chain: The revenue chain is 33 ft. long and consists of 16 links, each link being
2116ft. long.
5. Steel band or band chain: The steel band consists of a long narrow strip of blue steel, of
uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. Metric steel bands are
available in lengths of 20 or 30 m.
Ranging out Survey Lines

When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be
laid between the points/ stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The process
of laying out a straight line by establishing intermediate between points is known as ranging.
• Direct Ranging

• Indirect Ranging
Direct Ranging
When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly. The intermediate
points are placed at distances having interval less than one tape length. The intermediate
points are found by moving a ranging pole in transverse direction and thus, points are selected
in such a way that the end points and the intermediate points lie in a straight line. In this
method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are required in a team of at least one
surveyor and one assistant.
Indirect Ranging
Indirect or Reciprocal ranging is resorted to when both the ends of the survey line are not
intervisible either due to high intervening ground or due to long distance between them. In
such a case, ranging is done indirectly by selecting two intermediate points M1 and N1 very
near to the chain line (by judgement) in such a way that from M1 both N1 and B are visible
(Fig.) and from N1 both M1 and A are visible.
Fig. Reciprocal Levelling
The Compass
Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small and is
fairly flat. However, when large areas are involved, methods of chain surveying alone are not
sufficient. In such cases, it becomes essential to use some sort of instrument which enables
angles or directions of the survey lines to be observed.
In engineering practice, following are the instruments used for such measurements :
(a) Instruments for the direct measurement of directions :

(i) Surveyor's Compass
(ii) Prismatic Compass
(b) Instruments for measurements of angles

(i) Sextant
(ii) Theodolite

Bearings & Angles
Meridian: It is a reference direction with respect to which the direction of lines are
mentioned.
There are three types of meridian – True Meridian, Magnetic Meridian &Arbitrary Meridian
1.True Meridian: It is the reference direction of north pole of earth from a given station
point. It is also called geographic meridian.
2.Magnetic Meridian: It is the direction of north pole indicated by magnetic needle.
3.Arbitrary Meridian: This is any assume direction to a well defined object. It may be
useful for small areas. e.g. A mosque is taken as reference and location of road will be
mentioned with respect to this mosque. Direction of magnetic north with respect to true north
is called magnetic direction.
Bearing: Bearing is the angle which a certain line make with a certain a certain meridian.
Bearing with respect to true meridian is called true bearings while magnetic bearing is the
angle which a line makes with respect to magnetic meridian. There are two ways to represent
the bearings:
1.Whole circle bearing (W.C.B)
2.Reduced Bearing (R.B)
1. Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B): It can be taken 0° to 360°. Quadrants are taken clock
wisely and angles are also determined in clockwise direction.
2. Reduced Bearing (R.B.): Reduced bearing or Quadrantal bearing is the angle which a line
makes from North or South Pole whichever may be near. It is value is from 0° to 90°.
Table 1.1 Conversion of W.C.B. to R.B.

Line W.C.B. b/w Rule for R.B. Quadrant
AB 0º& 90º R.B.= W.C.B. NE
AC 90º& 180º R.B.= 180º-W.C.B. SE
AD 180º& 270º R.B.= W.C.B-180º SW
AF 270º& 360º R.B.= 360º-W.C.B. NW
Table 1.2 Conversion of R.B. to W.C.B.
Line R.B. Rule for W.C.B. W.C.B. b/w
AB NƟ1E W.C.B.= R.B. 0º& 90º
AC SƟ2E W.C.B= 180º-R.B. 90º& 180º
AD SƟ3W W.C.B.= 180+R.B. 180º& 270º
AF NƟ4W W.C.B.= 360º-R.B. 270º& 360º
Questions
1. (a) Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings:(i) 22º30' (ii)
170º12' (iii) 211º54' (iv) 327º 24'.
(b) Convert the following quadrantal bearing to whole circle bearings:
(i) N12º24'E (ii) S31º36'E (iii) S68º6'W (iv) N5º42'W.

Solution.
(a) Ref. to the above figure 1& table 1.1, we have
(i) R.B. = W.C.B. = 22º30' = N 22º30' E.
(ii) R.B. = 180º - W. C. B. = 180 º -170 º 12' = S 9 º 48' E.
(iii) R.B. = W. C. B. - 180 º = 211 º 54 -180 º = S 31 º 54' W.
(iv) R.B. = 360 º - W.C.B. = 360 º - 327 º 24' = N 32 º 36' W.
(b) Ref. to Fig. 2 and Table 1.2 we have

(i) W.C.B.= R.B.= 12 º 24'
(ii) W.C.B.= 180 º - R.B.= 180 º - 31 º 36' = 148 º 24'
(iii) W.C.B.= 180 º + R.B.= 180 º + 68 º 6' = 248 º 6'
(iv) W.C.B.= 360 º - R.B. = 360 º - 5 º 42' = 354 º 18'
Fore & Back Bearing

If the bearing of a line AB is measured from A towards B. it is known as forward bearing or
Fore Bearing (F.B). If the bearing of the line AB is measured from B towards A, it is known
as backward bearing or Back Bearing (B.B.), since it is measured in backward direction.
Considering first the W.C.B. system and referring to Fig. (a), the back bearing of line AB is φ
and fore bearing of AB is ϴ. Evidently φ =ϴ+180°. Similarly, from Fig. (b), the back bearing
of CD is φ and fore bearing ϴ. hence. φ = ϴ - 180°.
Thus, in general, it can be stated that

B.B. = F.B. +-180° using plus sign when F.B. is less than 180° & minus sign when F.B. is
greater than 180°.
Question: The following are observed fore-bearings of the lines (i) AB 12° 24' (ii) BC
119°48' (iii) CD 266°30' (iv) DE 354° 18' (v) PQ N18°0' E (vi) QR Sl2° 24'E
(vii)RSS59°18'W (viii) ST N86°12'W. Find their back bearings.
Solution : B.B.= F. B.± 180', using + sign when F.B. is less than 180°, and – sign when it is
more than 180°.
(i) B.B. of AB = 12° 24' + 180° = 192° 24'.

(ii) B.B. of BC = 119° 48' + 180° = 299° 48'
(iii) B. B. of CD= 266° 30'- 180° = 86° 30'
(iv) B.B. of DE= 354° 18' - 180° = 174° 18'
To convert the fore bearing to back bearing, it is only necessary to changethe cardinal points
by substituting N for S, and E for W and vice versa, the numerical value of the bearing
remaining the same.
(v) B.B. of PQ = S 18° 0' W
(vi) B. B. of QR = N 12° 24' W
(vii) B.B. of RS = N 59°18' E
(viii) B.B. of ST = S 86° 12' E
Difference between Surveyor’s & Prismatic Compass
Item Prismatic Compass Surveyor’s Compass
Magnetic The needle is of 'broad needle' The needle is of 'edge bar' type.
Needle type. The needle does not act as The needle acts as the index also.
index.
Graduated (1) The graduated card ring is (1) The graduated card is attached
Card attached with the needle. The to the box and not to the needle.
ring does not rotate along with The card rotates along with the
the line or sight. line of sight.
(2) The graduations are in (2) The graduations are in Q.B.

W.C.B. system, having 0° at system, having 0° at N and S and
South end, 90° at West. 180° at 90° at East and West. East and
North and 270° at east. West are interchanged.
(3) The graduations are engraved (3) The graduations are engraved
inverted. erect.
Sighting (1) The object vane consists of (1) The object vane consists of a
metal vane with a vertical hair. metal vane with a vertical hair.
Vanes
(2) The eye vane consists of a (2)The eye vane consists of a
small metal vane with slit. metal vane with fine slit.

(2) Sighting & reading can be (2) Sighting & reading cannot be
done simultaneously from one done simultaneously from one
position of the observer. position of the observer.
Tripod Tripod may or may not be The instrument cannot be used

provided. The instrument can be without a tripod.
used even by holding suitably in
hand
Levelling
Levelling is the most widely used method for obtaining the elevation of ground points relative
as a reference datum . Levelling involves the measurement of a vertical distance relative to a
horizontal line of sight.
Therefore it requires a graduated staff for the vertical measurements and an instrument that
will provide a horizontal line of sight.
Definitions
1. Level surface: A level surface is defined as the curved surface which at each point is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at that point.
2. Level Line: Normal to the plumb line at all points.
3. Horizontal Plane: It is a plane tangential to the level surface at that point.
4. Horizontal line: straight line tangential to the level at a point.
5. Vertical line: Line normal to the level line at a point.
6. Datum: Any surface to which elevations are referred.
7. Elevation: Vertical distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum.

Methods of levelling
The important methods of levelling used while surveying are as follows :
1. Indirect method
2. Direct method
Indirect method:
(a) Trigonometric levelling

(b) Barometric levelling
(c)Hypsometric levelling
Direct levelling:
(a)Differential levelling
(b)Spirit levelling
(c)Longitudinal levelling (profile levelling)
(d)Reciprocal levelling
Terms & Abbreviations

1. Station: It is the point where the level rod (graduated rod) is held and whose elevation is to
be ascertained.
2. Height of Instrument (H.I.): It is the elevation of line of sight w.r.t. the assumed datum.
3. Back Sight (B.S.): It is a sight taken on a rod held at a point of known elevation, to
ascertain the amount by which line of sight is above that point, thus to obtain H.I. plus sight.
4. Fore Sight: It is the sight taken on a rod held at a point of unknown elevation, to ascertain
the amount by which the point is below the line of sight , and thus obtain elevation of station.
(Minus sight).
5. Turning Point: It is a point on which both B.S. & F.S. are taken.
6. Intermediate Station: It is a point, intermediate between two turning points, on which

only one sight (F.S.) is taken to determine elevation of station.
Example: Elevation of B.M. = 210.852 m, B.S. = 2.324 m and F.S. = 1.836 m. Calculate
H.I.& elevation at point B.
Then H.I. = 210.852+2.324 = 213.176 m
And Elev. At B = 213.176 – 1.836 = 211.340 m
Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling)
In this, spirit level and sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances are
measured by observing an graduated rods placed on the points. It is the most precise methods
of levelling.
Differential Levelling
The operation of levelling to determine the elevation of points at some distance apart is
differential levelling. In this, instrument has more than one setting and used when all the
points are not clearly intervisible from single position of instrument. Also called Fly levelling.
This levelling is used when rapidity and low accuracy is required. This levelling gets an
approximate elevation.
The distance AB has been divided into three parts. Point 1 & 2 serve as T.P. The R.L. of A =
240 m. The Height of first setting = 240.00+2.024 = 242.024 m. Now F.S. = 1.420, the R.L. of
T.P. 1 = 242.024 – 1.420 = 240.604 m.
By similar process we can calculate R.L. at T.P. 2 = 240.490 m and of B = 241.202 m.
Booking & Reducing Levels

Two methods:
1. Collimation or Height of Instrument Method
2. Rise & Fall Method.
1. Collimation or Height of Instrument Method
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. REMARKS
A 0.865 561.365 560.500 B.M.
B 1.025 2.105 560.285 559.260
C 1.580 558.705
D 2.230 1.865 560.650 558.420
E 2.355 2.835 560.170 557.815
F 1.76 558.410
CHEC 6.475 8.565 2.090 Check

K
Arithmetic Check: ΣB.S. – ΣF.S. = LAST R.L. – FIRST R.L.
6.475-8.565 = 2.090
560.500 - 558.410 = 2.090
2. Rise & Fall Method

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. RISE FAL R.L. REMARKS
L
A 0.865 560.5 B.M.
B 1.025 2.105 1.24 559.260
C 1.580 0.555 558.705 PLATFOR

M
D 2.230 1.865 0.285 558.420
E 2.355 2.835 0.605 557.815
F 1.76 0.595 558.410
CHEC 6.475 8.565 0.595 2.685 558.41 CHECKED

K
6.475 0.595 560.500
2.090 2.090 2.090
Arithmetic Check: ΣB.S. – ΣF.S. = ΣRise – ΣFall = LAST R.L. – FIRST R.L. · This
provides a check on intermediate sights also.
Quest1. The following staff readings were observed successively with a level, the
instrument having been moved after third, sixth and eighth readings : 2.228, 1.606, 0.988
; 2.090 ; 2.864 ; 1.262 ; 0.602; 1.982 ; 1.044 ; 2.684 metres . Enter the above readings in a
page of a level book and calculate the R.L. of points if the first reading was taken with a
staff held on a bench mark of 432.384 m.
Solution. Since the instrument was shifted after third, sixth and eighth readings, these
readings will be entered in ·the F.S. column and therefore, the fourth, seventh and ninth
readings will be entered on the B.S. column. Also, the first reading will be entered in the B.S.
column and the last reading in the F.S. column. All other readings will be entered in the I. S.
column. The reduced levels of the points may be calculated by rise and fall method as
tabulated below:

Statio B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remark
n s
1 2.228 432.384 B.M.
2 1.606 0.622 433.006
3 2.090 0.988 0.618 433.624 T.P.1
4 2.864 0.774 432.850
5 0.602 1.262 1.602 434.452 T.P.2
6 1.044 1.982 1.38 433.072 T.P.3
7 2.684 1.64 431.432
Check 5.964 6.914 2.842 3.794 432.384 Checked

5.964 2.842 431.432
0.952 0.952 0.952
Ques. 2 It was required to ascertain the elevation of two points P and Q and a line of
levels was run from P to Q. The levelling was then continued to a bench mark of 83.500,
the readings obtained being as shown below. Obtain the R.L. of P and Q.
Solution: To find the R.L.s. of P and Q, we will have to proceed from bottom to the top. To
find the H. I., therefore, F. S. readings will have to be added to the R.L. of the known point
and to find the R.L. of the previous point, the B.S. will have to be subtracted from the so
obtained H.I. as clearly shown in the table below:
B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L.
1.622 84.82 83.198
1.874 0.354 86.340 84.466
2.032 1.78 86.592 84.560

2.362 84.230
0.984 1.122 86.454 85.470
1.906 2.824 85.536 83.630
2.036 83.500
8.418 8.116 0.302
Curvature & Refraction
Curvature:
From Fig. B
OC2 = OA2 + AC2
Let BC =Cc = Correction for Curvature
AB = d= horizontal distance between A & B

AO = R = radius of earth.
(R+ Cc )2 = R2 + d2
R2 + 2RCc + Cc2 = R2 + d2
Cc (2R+Cc ) = d2
or Cc = d2/ (2R +Cc ) = d2/ 2R (neglecting Cc )
If d is to be in km and R = 6370 km,

Cc = 0.07849 d2 metres
In this expression, d is to be substituted in km, while Cc will be in metres. The correction
applied is negative.
Refraction:
The refraction curve is irregular but for average conditions it is assumed to have diameter
about 7 times that of the earth.
Cr = ��
�� = 0.01121 d2
The combined correction ( C ) is given by
= Cc - Cr (subtractive)
C = 0.06728 d2 metres, d being in km.
Ques 1. Find the correction for curvature and for refraction for a distance of (a) 1200
metres
(b) 2.48 km.

Sol. (a) Correction for curvature = 0.07849 d2 metres (where d is in km) = 0.07849 (1.2) 2=
0.113 m
Correction for refraction = Cr = 0.016 m
(b) Correction for curvature = 0.07849 (2.48)2 = 0.483 m

Correction for refraction = Cr = 0.069 m.
Ques 2. Find the combined correction for curvature and refraction for distance of (a)
3400 metres (b) 1.29 km.
Solution:
(a) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
= 0.06728 d2 m = 0.06728 (3.40)2 = 0.778 m.
(b) Combined correction = 0.06728 (1.29)2 = 0.112 m.
Distance to Visible Horizon

let P be the point of observation, its height being equal to C and let A be the point on the
horizon i.e., a point where the tangent from P meets the level line. If d is the distance to
visible horizon, it is given by

d=√��
��.�� km
d = 3.85 √�� km , C being in metres.
RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
When it is necessary to carry levelling across a river or any obstacle requiring a long sight
between two points so situated that no place for the level can be found from which the
lengths of foresight and backsight will be even approximately equal, special method i.e.
reciprocal levelling must be used to obtain accuracy and to eliminate the following:
(I) error in instrument adjustment ; (2) combined effect of earth's curvature and the refraction
of the atmosphere, and (3) variations in the average refraction.
Let A and B be the points and observations be made with a level, the line of sight of which is
inclined upwards when the bubble is in the centre of its run. The level is set at a point near A
and staff readings are taken on A and B with the bubble in the centre of its run. Since B.M. A
is very near to instrument, no error due to curvature, refraction and collimation will be
introduced in the staff readings at A. but there will be an error e in the staff reading on B. The
level is then shifted to the other bank, on a point very near B.M. B, and the readings are taken
on staff held at B and A. Since B is very near, there will be no error due to the three factors in
reading the staff, but the staff reading on A will have an error e. Let ha and hbbe the
corresponding staff readings on A and B for the first set of the level and ha’ and hb’ be the
readings for the second set.
From Fig., it is evident that for the first set of the level, the correct staff readings will be
On A : ha; On B: hb- e
. . True difference in elevation = H = ha – (hb- e)

Similarly for second set, the correct staff reading will be:
On A : ha' - e ; On B : hb'
Unit-1 Surveying and Geomatics
. . True difference in elevation = H = (ha' - e) – hb'

Taking the average of the two true differences in elevations, we get
2H = [ha- (hb- e)+ (ha'- e)- hb'] = (ha- hb) + (ha'- hb')
H = 12[(ha – hb) + (ha' - hb' )]
Profile Levelling (Longitudinal Sectioning)

Profile levelling is the process of determining the elevations of points at short measured
intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of a railway, highway, canal or sewer. The
fixed line may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a succession of straight lines
or of a series of straight lines connected by curves. It is also known as longitudinal
sectioning.
Cross Sectioning
Cross-sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side of it for the
purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for estimating
quantities of earth work and for other purposes. The cross-sections are numbered
consecutively from the commencement of the centre line and are set out at right angles to the
main line of section with the chain and tape, the cross-staff or the optical square and the
distances are measured left and right from the centre peg.

Errors in Levelling
Instrumental
(a) Error due to imperfect adjustment.
(b) Error due to sluggish bubble.
(c) Error due to movement of objective slide.
(d) Rod not of standard length.
(e) Error due to defective joint.
Natural
(a) Earth's curvature.
(b) Atmospheric refraction.
(c) Variations in temperature.
(d) Settlement of tripod or turning points.
(e) Wind vibrations.
Personal
(a) Mistakes in manipulation.
(b) Mistake in rod handling.
(c) Mistake in reading the rod.
(d) Errors in sighting.
(e) Mistakes in recording.
Object of Levelling

⦿ The important objective of levelling is to find the elevations of given points with
respect to a given or assumed data.
⦿To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given
or assumed datum.
⦿ To deal with angular and linear measurements in vertical plane. These are the most
important objectives of levelling.
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
Plane Tabling is a graphical method of surveying in which the field work and plotting are
done simultaneously. Useful to fill in details between stations fixed by triangulation or
theodolite traversing. Particularly adapted for small scale or medium scale mapping in which
great accuracy in detail is not required. It is ideally suited to filling in details on a map
already prepared and available on the drawing sheet.
Accessories
• Plane Table
• Alidade
• Spirit Level
• Compass
• Plumbing Fork
• Drawing Paper
1. Plane Table: The plane table is a well-seasoned, good quality drawing board, varying size
from 45 cm to 75 cm. A drawing sheet can be placed and fixed on this table. There are three
types of Plane Table:-
• Simple Plane Table

• Johnson’s Plane Table
• Coast Survey Table
2. Alidade: An Alidade is a sighting instrument. There are two types of Alidade
• Plane Alidade: Consists of a metal (brass or gunmetal) or boxwood straight edge or ruler
about 50 cm long. The beveled (ruling or working) edge of the alidade is called the fiducial
edge. It consists of two vanes at the ends, the vanes are hinged and can be folded when the
alidade is not in use. One of the sight vanes is provided with a narrow slit and the other with a
central vertical wire or hair. One of the vanes known assight vane is provided with a narrow
slit with three holes, one at the top, one at the bottom and one in the middle.
• Telescopic Alidade: The alidade which is fitted with a telescope is known as a telescopic
alidade. It is used to take inclined sights. It increases the range and accuracy of the sights. It
consists of a small telescope with a level tube. A graduated scale is mounted on the
horizontal axis. One side of the metal ruler is used as the working edge along which lines are
drawn. The angles of elevation or depression can be read on the vertical circle.
3. Spirit Level: It consists of a small metal tube which contains a small bubble. The spirit level
may also be circular but its base must be flat so that it can be laid on the table. The table is truly
level when the bubble remains central all over the table.
4. Magnetic Compass: A box compass consists of a magnetic needle pivoted at its centre
freely. It is used for orienting the plane table to magnetic north. The edges of the box
compass are straight and the bottom is perfectly flat.
5. Plumbing Fork: The plumbing fork consists of a hair pin-shaped brass frame, having two
equal arms. One end has a pointer while a plumb bob is attached the other end. It is used in
large scale survey for accurate centering of the station location on the table over its ground
position.
Setting up the Plane Table

1. Setting up the Plane Table in the Field: The table should be set up at a convenient
height. (say about 1m). The legs of the tripod should be spread well apart, and firmly fixed
into the ground in such a way that the table is approximately level.

2. Levelling the Table: In this operation, the table top is made truly horizontal. For rough
and small scale work, leveling can be done by eye estimation
whereas for accurate and large scale work, leveling achieved with an ordinary spirit level.
The leveling is specially important in hilly terrain where some of the control points are
situated at higher level and some other at lower level. The dislevellingof the plane table,
throws the location of the point considerably out of its true location.
3. Centring the Table: The table should be so placed over the station on the ground that the
point plotted on the sheet corresponding to the station occupied should be exactly over the
station on the ground. This operation is known as the centering of the table. This may be done
using a plumbing fork or U frame.
4. Orienting the Plane Table: The operation of keeping the table at each of the successive
stations parallel to the position which it occupied at the first station is known as orientation. It
is necessary when the instrument has to be set up at more than one station.
There are two methods of orienting the table:
⦿Orientation by the Magnetic Needle: This method is used when it is not possible to
bisect the previous station from the new station. This method is not much reliable and
prone to errors due to variations of magnetic field.
⦿Orientation by Back sighting: In this method the table is orientated by back sighting
through the ray which is drawn from the previous station. This is the most accurate
and reliable method of orientation of plane table.
Methods of Plane Tabling

There are four methods of surveying with the plane table:
a) Radiation Method
b) Intersection Method
c) Traversing Method
d) Resection Method
1. Radiation Method: In this method the objects are located by radiating lines from the
point, and measuring the distance with chain or tape with suitable scale. It is chiefly used for
locating the details from the station, which have been established previously by other
methods triangulation, or traversing.

2. Intersection Method: In this method the point is fixed on the plane by the intersection of the
rays drawn from the two instrument stations. The line joining the stations is called Base line.
The method requires only the linear measurements of this line.
3. Traversing Method: This is similar to that of Compass Survey or Transit Traversing.It is

used for running survey lines between stations, which have been previously fixed by other
methods of survey, to locate the topographic details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads,
rivers, etc.
4. Resection Method: This method is used for establishing the instrument stations only. A
Characteristic feature of this resection is that the objective is to plot the station occupied by
the table on the sheet rather than obtaining other station or plotting the details. After fixing
the stations, details are located either by radiation or intersection.
ADJUSTMENT OF THE PLANE TABLE
⦿The surface of the board should be perfectly plane.

⦿The ruling or fiducial edge of the alidade should be straight.
⦿The sight vanes of the alidade should be perpendicular to the base of the ruler.
ERRORS IN PLANE TABLING

Following precautionary measures should be taken while performing field work:
⦿The table must be accurately oriented once the table is shifted.
⦿The alidade should be correctly centered on the station point on paper.
⦿The expansion and contraction of paper should be taken care off. ⦿ The table should
accurately centered.
⦿The rays should be accurately drawn through the station points.
⦿Table should be sufficiently clamped.
⦿The board should be horizontal.
⦿The objects should be accurately sighted
MERITS OF PLANE TABLING
⦿It is most suitable for preparing small-scale maps.
⦿It is most rapid.
⦿The field book is not necessary as plotting is done in the field concurrently with the
field work, and hence the mistakes in booking the field notes are avoided.
⦿The surveyor can compare the plotted work with the actual features of the area
surveyed and thus can ascertain if it represents them properly.
⦿ It is particularly advantageous in magnetic areas where compass survey is not reliable.
⦿It is less costly than a theodolite survey.
⦿No great skill is required to prepare a satisfactory map.
DEMERITS OF PLANE TABLING
⦿ It is not suitable for work in a wet climate.

⦿It is heavy, cumbersome and awkward to carry.
⦿ There are several accessories to be carried, and, therefore, they are likely to be lost.
⦿ It is not intended for accurate work.
⦿If the survey is to be re-plotted to a different scale or quantities are to be computed, it

is a great inconvenience in absence of the field notes.
CONTOURING
An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is known as
contour. In other words, contour is a line in which the ground surface is intersected by a level
surface obtained by joining points of equal elevation. This line on the map represents a contour
and is called contour line.
Contour Map: A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map. A contour map gives an
idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative positions in plan serves the
purpose of both, a plan and a section.
Contouring:The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called Contouring.
Purpose of Contouring
Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a road, a railway,
a canal, a dam, a building etc.
 For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or suitable site.
 To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.
 To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of earthwork both in
cutting and filling should be minimum.
 For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
 To find the capacity of a reservoir and volume of earthwork especially in a mountainous
region.
 To trace out the given grade of a particular route.
 To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression, hill, steep or
small slopes.
Contour Interval: The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the
contour interval.

HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT: The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours
is called as horizontal equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while the horizontal
equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR INTERVAL DEPENDS

The contour interval depends upon the following factors:
 The Nature of the Ground:In flat and uniformly sloping country, the contour interval is
small , but in broken and mountainous region the contour interval should be large
otherwise the contours will come too close to each other.
 The Purpose and extent of the survey:Contour interval is small if the area to be
surveyed is small and the maps are required to be used for the design work or for
determining the quantities of earth work etc. while wider interval shall have to be kept for
large areas and comparatively less important works.
 The Scale of the Map:The contour interval should be in the inverse ratio to the scale of
the map i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater is the contour interval.
 Time and Expense of Field and Office work:The smaller the interval, the greater is the
amount of field-work and plotting work.
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR –INTERVAL

 For large scale maps of flat country, for building sites, for detailed design work and for
calculation of quantities of earth work; 0.2 to 0.5 m.
 For reservoirs and town planning schemes; 0.5 to 2m.
 For location surveys. 2 to 3m.
 For small scale maps of broken country and general topographic work; 3m,5m,10m,or
25m.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
 All points in a contour line have the same elevation.
 Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and steep- slope where
they run close together.
 A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced and a plane
surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
 A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill, if the higher values are inside
 A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a depression if the higher values are
outside.
 Contours cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either within or outside the limits
of the map.
 Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on map except in the case of an
overhanging cliff.
 Contour lines never run into one another except in the case of a vertical cliff. In this case,
several contours coincide and the horizontal equivalent becomes zero.
METHODS OF CONTOURING
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:-
 Direct Method
 Indirect Method.
DIRECT METHOD
In this method, the contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by locating and
marking a number of points on each contour. These points are then surveyed and plotted on plan
and the contours drawn through them.This method is most accurate but very slow and tedious as
a lot of time is wasted in searching points of the same elevation for a contour. This is suitable for
small area and where great accuracy is required.
Procedure: To start with, a temporary B.M is established near the area to be surveyed with
reference to a permanent B.M by fly leveling. The level is then set up in such a position so that
the maximum number of points can be commanded from the instrument station. The height of
instrument is determined by taking a back sight on the B.M. and adding it to the R.L. of bench
mark. The staff reading required to fix points on the various contours is determined by
subtracting the R.L. of each of the contours from the height of instrument.
Example: If the height of instrument is 82.48m., then the staff readings required to locate 82, 81
and 80m contours are 0.48, 1.48 and 2.48m respectively. The staff is held on an approximate
position of point and then moved up and down the slope until the desired reading is obtained.
The point is marked with a peg. Similarly various other points are marked on each contour. The
line joining all these points give the required contour. It may be noted that one contour is located
at a time. Having fixed the contours within the range of the instrument, the level is shifted and

set up in a new position. The new height of instrument and the required staff readings are then
calculated in a similar manner and the process repeated till all the contours are located. The
positions of the contour points are located suitably either simultaneous with levelling or
afterwards. A theodolite , a compass or a plane table traversing is usually adopted for locating
these points. The points are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by joining the
corresponding points by dotted curved lines.
Direct Method by Radial Lines: This method is suitable for small areas, where a single point in
the centre can command the whole area. Radial lines are laid out from the common centre by
theodolite or compass and their positions are fixed up by horizontal angles and bearings.
Temporary bench marks are first established at the centre and near the ends of the radial
lines .The contour points are then located and marked on these lines and their positions are
determined by measuring their distances along the radial lines. They are then plotted on the plan
and the contours drawn by joining all the corresponding points with the help of a plane table
instrument.
INDIRECT METHOD
In this method the points located and surveyed are not necessarily on the contour lines but the
spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid out over the area. The spot levels of the several
representative points representing hills, depressions, ridge and valley lines and the changes in the
slope all over the area to be contoured are also observed. Their positions are then plotted on the
plan and the contours drawn by interpolation. This method of contouring is also known as
contouring by spot levels. This method is commonly employed in all kinds of surveys as this is
cheaper, quicker and less tedious as compared to direct method.
There are mainly three method of contouring in indirect method:
(i) By Squares. In this method, the whole area is divided into number of squares, the
side of which may vary from 5m to 30m depending upon the nature of the ground and
the contour interval. The square need not be of the same size throughout. The corners
of the squares are pegged out and the reduced levels of these points aredetermined
with a level. The important points within the squares may be taken when required and
located by measurements from the corners. The squares are plotted and the reduced
levels of the corners are written on the plan.

(ii) By Cross-Sections: This method is most suitable for the survey of long narrow strips
such as a road, railway or canal etc.This method is most suitable for the surveys of
long narrow strips such as a road, railway or canal etc. Cross sections are run
transverse to the centre line of the work and representative points are marked along
the lines of cross-section. The cross-section lines need not necessarily be at right
angles to the centre line of the work. This may be inclined at any angle to the centre
line if necessary. The spacing of the cross-sections depends upon the topography of
the country and the nature of the survey. The common value is 20 to 30 m in hilly
country and 100m in flat country. The levels of the points along the section lines are
plotted on the plan and the contours are then interpolated as usual as shown in the fig.
(iii) TACHEOMETRIC METHOD: A techeometer is a transit theodolite having a

diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires, one above and other below the central wire.
This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the number of stations which can be
commanded by a techeometer is far more than those by a level and thus the number of
instrument settings is considerably reduced.

USES OF CONTOUR MAPS
 A contour map furnishes information regarding the features of the ground , whether it
is flat, undulating or mountainous.
 From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in any direction
 Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map can be ascertained
 It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical or suitable site for
an engineering project such as a road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.
 A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
 Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from the contour map.
 Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth work.
Measurement of Area
Foremost among the reasons for making land surveys is for the determination of area. Land is
frequently bought and sold by the area measure. Building costs are often computed on the basis
of per square metre of area. The field work consists of a series of linear and angular
measurements defining the outline of a piece of land, forming a closed polygon.
The following are some of the prevalent methods of area determination.
1. By Computations based directly on field measurements
(a) By dividing the area into a number of triangles
(b) By offsets to base line
(c) By latitudes and departures:
(i) By double meridian distance (D.M.D. method)
(ii) By double parallel distance (D.P.D. method)
(d) By co-ordinates.
2. By computation based on measurements scaled from a map.
3. By mechanical method : Usually by means of a planimeter.
Computation of Area by Geometrical figures
Some of the formulae used for determining the area (A) of various geometric figures are as
follows.

Geometric formulae for area
1. Triangle: A = base x half of the perpendicular height
2. Parallelogram: A = base x perpendicular height
3. Trapezoid: A = half of the sides x perpendicular height
4. Trapezium: A = area as found by dividing the figure into two triangles
5. Regular polygon: A = length of perimeter x half of the perpendicular distance centre of sides.
(a) By dividing the area into a number of triangles
In this method, the area is divided into anumber of triangles, and the area of each triangle is
calculated. The total area of the tract will then be equal to the sum of areas of individual
triangles.
If two sides and one included angle of a triangle is measured, the area of the triangle is given by,
1
Area = absin C
2
When the lengths of the three sides of a triangle are measured, its area is computed by
A = √s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
where s = 1/2 (a+b+c)
The method is suitable only for work of small nature where the determination of the closing error
of the figure is not important.
(b) By offset to base line
This method is suitable for long narrow strips of land. The offsets are measured from the
boundary to the base line or a survey line at regular intervals. The area can be calculated by the
following rules:
 Mid-ordinate rule
 Average ordinate rule
 Trapezoidal rule
 Simpson's one-third rule.
Mid-ordinate rule: This method is used with the assumption that the boundaries between the
extremities of the ordinates are straight lines.

In this method, the ordinates are measured at the mid-points of each division and the area is
calculated by the formula.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎Δ=Average ordinate x length of base
O1+O 2+O3+ … … … .+ On
= L = ( O 1+O 2+O 3+… … … .+On )d = dΣO
n
𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑=th𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑛th𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑂1,O2,𝑂3,…..,𝑂𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑡h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑐h 𝑜𝑓𝑡h𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Average ordinate rule: This rule also assumes that the boundaries between the extremities of
the ordinates are straight lines.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎Δ=(𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠)/(𝑛+1)× L
L
= ΣO
( n+1 )
Trapezoidal rule: In this method, boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to be
straight. Thus the area enclosed between these line and the irregular boundary lines are
considered as trapezoids.

( Oo+O 1 )
Area of first trapezoid = d
2
( O1+O 2 )
Area of second trapezoid = d
2
( On −1+On )
Area of last trapezoid = d
2
( Oo+On )
Summing up, A = d [ + O1 + O2 +….... + On-1 ]
2
Simpson's One-Third Rule
Assumption: The boundary between the extremities of three consecutive offsets is a parabolic
arc whose axis is parallel to the offsets.
The rule is applicable only when the number of divisions of the area is even i.e., the total number
of ordinates is odd. If there is an odd number of divisions (resulting in even number of
ordinates), the area of the last division must be calculated separately, and added to equation.
d
Area = [(Oo + On) + 4 (O1 + O3 + ….. + On-1) + 2 (O2 + O4 +….. On-2)
3
Ques: The following offsets were taken at 15 m intervals from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line.
3.50,4.30, 6.75, 5.25, 7.50, 8.80, 7.90, 6.40, 4.40, 3.25 m. Calculate the area enclosed
between the survey line, the irregular boundary line, and the offsets, by:
(1) The trapezoidal rule (2) Simpson’s rule

(c) Area by Coordinates
(d) By planimeter
It is a mechanical integrator used for the measurement of areas of figures, plotted to a scale.
There are two types of planimeters: the Amsler polar planimeter and the rolling planimeter. If
areas that do not have straight line boundaries are drawn to some scale on a map or plan, their
values can be very easily found by the planimeter. Some of the other uses of planimeter are
measuring areas of cross-sections for highways and railways, and checking computed areas in
property surveys.
The most common type of a planimeter is the polar planimeter. The area is computed by utilizing
the relationship between the tracing arm point, moved over the outline of the figure, and the
connected recording wheel which records the displacement.
Measurement of Volume
In many civil engineering projects, earthwork involve the excavation, removal and dumping of
earth, therefore it is required to make good estimate of volume of earthwork. Volume
computation are also required to determine the capacity of reservoirs.
Computing of areas and volumes is an important part of the office work involved in surveying.
For computation of the volume of earthwork, the sectional area of the cross-section which are
taken to the longitudinal section during profile leveling are first calculated. After calculating the
cross-sectional areas, the volume of earth work is calculated by
 The Trapezoidal Rule

 The Prismoidal Rule (simpson’s rule)

Trapezoidal Rule (Average End Area Rule)
Volume (Cutting or Filling)
• V= d [ (A1 + An)/2 + 2 (A2 + A3 + …….An-1]
i.e. Volume= Common Distance x [ (First section area + Last section area)/2 + 2 ( sum of areas
of other sections)]
Prismoidal Formula
Volume,
• V= d/3 x [ A1 + An + 4 (A2 + A4 + An-1) + 2 (A3 + A5+ ….. An-2)]
i.e. Volume= Common Distance/3 x [ Area of First Section + Area of Last Section + 4 (Sum of
areas of even Section) + 2 (Sum of Area of Odd Sections)]
The Prismoidal formula is applicable when there are odd number of sections. If the number of
sections are even, the end section is treated separately and the area is calculated according to the
trapezoidal rule. The volume of the remaining section is calculated in the usual manner by the
prismoidal formula. Then both the result are added to obtain the total volume.
THEODOLITE SURVEYING
Theodolite is used to measure the horizontal and vertical angles. Theodolite is more precise than
magnetic compass. Magnetic compass measures the angle up to as accuracy of 30’. However a
vernier theodolite measures the angles up to and accuracy of 10’’, 20”.There are variety of
theodolite vernier, optic,electronic etc.
So far we have been measuring horizontal angles by using a Compass with respect to meridian,
which is less accurate and also it is not possible to measure vertical angles with a Compass. So
when the objects are at a considerable distance or situated at a considerable elevation or
depression ,it becomes necessary to measure horizontal and vertical angles more precisely.
Sothese measurements are taken by an instrument known as a theodolite.
THEODOLITE SURVEYING is system of surveying in which the angles are measured with
the help of a theodolite, is called Theodolite surveying.
The Theodolite is a most accurate surveying instrument mainly used for:
• Measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

• Locating points on a line.
• Prolonging survey lines.
• Finding difference of level.
• Setting out grades
• Ranging curves
• Tacheometric Survey
A theodolite basically consists of
a. Telescope: Helps in bisecting the far of objects. It’s an integral part of the theodolite.
b. Vertical circle: Has a vertical scale useful in vertical angle measurements circular graduated
are attached to the traction a in of telescope.
c. Horizontal plate: They support the telescope vertical circle and A. frame. They have
horizontal scale which helps in horizontal angle measurements.
d. Head and foot plate: These are the support plates on which the horizontal plate is made to
rest between head and foot plate, there are 3 foot screws which help in leveling the instruments.
Axis of Theodolite:
Following are the major axes present in theodolite:
1. Horizontal/ trunion axis: It is an axis parsing though the centre of vertical circle and A
frame. Telescope is supported and rotated about this axis in the vertical place.
2. Vertical axis: It’s an axis passing through the centre of the level plates. Instrument is rotated
about this axis in the horizontal place.

3. Axis of collimation: It is an axis passing through the centre of cross hair of the eyepiece of the
and the objective. This should run along the centre of the telescope tube.
4. Axis of plate level: It is an axis passing tangentially to the bubble of the spirit tube of the
horizontal plate, when the instrument is leveled.
Technical Terms
1. Centering: It’s a process of placing the instrument over the identified point on the ground
when the instrument is centered the vertical axis should pass through the ground point about
which the instrument is centered.
2. Transiting/Plunging: It’s a process of rotating the telescope about horizontal axis along the
vertical plane through 180°.
3.Face: It is a condition that tells informs the side or position of the vertical circle to the observer
4. Face left: If the vertical circle is to the left of the observer it is called face left observation
5.Face right: It’s a condition when the vertical circle is to the light of the observer
6.Swing: It is a direction of rotation of the instrument about vertical axis in the horizontal plane
When the instrument is rotated in the clockwise direction it is called right swing. When the
instrument is rotated in the anticlockwise direction it is called left swing.
7.Temporary Adjustment: Before the instrument is put to field usage certain adjustments one
to be carried out so that the instrument is ready.
8.Fixing & Centering: It is an adjustment in which the instrument is attached to the tripod stand
and then placed exactly over the identified ground point.
9.Levelling: It is a stage of adjustment in which the instrument in made level w.r.t the mean
ground at the station.
1. The 3 foot screens are brought to the certain of their run
2. By adjusting the legs the head plate is made horizontal by eye judgment
3. The plate level is brought parallel to any of the two foot screens and the corresponding
foot screens are turned inwards or outwards simultaneously till the bubble is in the center of
the run
4. Plate level is turned perpendicular to its earlier position and the 3rd foot screen is turned
inwards or outwards till the bubble comes to the centre.
5. The steps 3 & 4 are repeated till the bubble is at the centre for any direction
Elimination of Parallax: It is an adjustment in which the image of the bisected object is made to
fall on the plane of cross hair. It is done through the following steps:
1. Looking through the eyepiece lye piece is turned clockwise or anticlockwise till the cross hairs
are seen dark.
2. Telescope is turned to a far off object and looking through the eye piece the focusing screen is
turned till the clean image of the object is seen.
Measurement of Angles:
Angle is a deviation between 2 objects measured with reference to a point and expressed in
degrees minutes and seconds. Using theodolite both horizontal and vertical angles can be
measured.
Horizontal angles are measured and observed w.r.t horizontal plate scale Horizontal plate scale
in marked from zero to 360o. It consists of main scale and vermin scale. Vernier scale is attached
to upper plate and its movement is controlled by upper clamp screw (U C S) Main scale is
attached to lower plate and its movement is controlled through lower clamp screw (LCS) The
value of each big division in a main scale is 1 which is divided into 3 parts there by value of each
small division is 200 In version scale each big division is 1 and is divided into 3 parts there by
the smallest division = 20‟ (20second). There 20‟ is the LC (least count) of theodolite.
General procedure for Angular Measurements
1. Both UCS & LCS are released Upper & lower plates are turned mutually till O of the version
co-insides with O (Zero) of the main scale.
2. The clamp screws are locked and lower tangential screw is used for accurate matching.
3. Releasing LCS instrument is turned towards the reference point P till accurate bisection is
made now the reading in the scale will be 00 0‟ 0”.
4. Releasing UCS the second object (Q) is bisected accurately and UCS is clamped.
5. The reading on the scale A & B is observed and entered .
In scale A complete reading is noted down

i.e. M.S – 1770 20‟
V.S - 9‟ 40”
1770 29‟ 40”
In scale B only minutes and seconds are observed
i.e, M.S -20‟
10‟ 40”
30‟ 40‟‟
The true angle PRQ in the mean of scale A and scale B.
Horizontal angle measurement
Horizontal angles are measured in 2 method

A) Method of repetition:
It is a method in which the angle between 2 points on objects in measured repeatedly

for n no. of times, in different formats the actual angle in each format will be.
The method is adopted

i) When there are few objects between which angle is required
ii) Very accurate value of the angle is required.

Procedure:
1. Instrument is fixed and centered at R ( the reference point)
2. Releasing UCS and LCS the horizontal plate reading is made 00 0‟ 0‟‟ the clamp screws are
tightened.
3. Releasing UCS the telescope is turned to Q and UCS is clamped.
4. With Upper tangential screw bisection of point is made.
5. The reading of scale A and scale B are interred in the corresponding column of the tabular
column.
This completes 1st repetition.

6. Releasing LCS the telescope in turned back to of „P‟ LCS is clamped after bisection with this
the same reading which was at Q now will be at P.
7. The above procedure listed in step 3 and 4 is repeated to the required No. of repetitions
The accurate angle PRQ will be equal to the final reading/No.of repetitions
B) Method of Reiteration:-

The method is adopted when
(i) There are lot of objects b/w which we need the horizontal angle
(ii) When objects are spread all around the reference pt.
(iii) When it is necessary to check the adjustment or accuracy of the instrument
Procedure:
1. Instrument is fixed and centered at the reference point or about the reference point „O‟ all the
temporary adjustments am ode Releasing UCS and LCS horizontal scale reading is made to read
o.0‟0‟‟ and stoutly pt in bisected UCS + LCS a locked.
2. Releasing UCS each and every object is bisected in sequence and champed after every
bisection.
3. Scale A and scale B readings for each object bisections is observed and entered in the tabular
column.
4. The angle b/w any 2 objects is obtained by subtracted the reading observed at the 1st object
from reading observed at the next object.
5. Finally after the last point bisection the telescope should to be brought back to the startle point
to check 0.0‟0‟‟.
Vertical angle measurements

The deviation of objects in the vertical plane will give the vertical angle. Vertical angles are
measured with respect to horizontal LOS which is taken as the reference When the bisected
objects are above the line of sight (los), vertical angle is called Angle of elevation. When the
bisected object is below the los vertical angle is called Angle of depression Vertical angles are
measured with the help of scale C and scale D which are on the vertical circle or vertical plate.
The marking are 00 to 900 an either side of 0 marking In vertical circle main scale is attached to
the telescope and hence it is movable. The vernier is attached to the vertical plate and is fixed.
General Procedure:

1. Instrument is adjusted for temporary adjustment. But the leveling is done w.r.t the attitude
bubble only
2. Releasing the vertical clamp screw (VCS) telescope is turned till 0 of the main scale is in line
with 0 of the version and it is clamped.
3. Releasing the VCS, telescope is turned above or below the horizontal line of sight (los)
depending on the position of the object.
4. UCS in clamped and accurate bisection is made using vertical tangential screw.
5. The obtained ladings on the scale C & D are observed and entered in tabular Colum.
6. Angle of elevation are marked with +vesign and angle of depression are signed a negative sign
Eg: + 180 25‟ 30‟‟
- 400 30‟ 20‟‟

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UNIT 1

primary aims of field surveying are:

• to measure the Horizontal Distance between points.

• to measure the Vertical elevation between points.

Importance of Surveying to Civil Engineers

in which surveying is primarily utilized are

• to fix the national and state boundaries;

• to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;

• to establish control points;

• to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping; and

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• To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;

Fundamental assumptions in Plane surveying

angles (both horizontal and vertical) are plane angles;

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• Control surveying: To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

1) Reconnaissance survey: To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.

B) Based on the Nature of the Survey

➢ Topographical Surveys: This is made to determine the natural features of a country

C) Based on the object of survey:

•Military Survey: This is used for determining points of strategic importance.

•Mine Survey: This is used for the exploring mineral wealth.

•Archaeological Survey: This is used for unearthing relics of antiquity.

D) Based on instruments used:

• Plane table survey

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• Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference

The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by measurement

Four Kinds of Measurements used in Plane Surveying.

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inches, yards (Bristish Units)

mm, cm, dm, hm, km, mile (metric units)

Basic Units of Angle Measurement

Angle is the difference in directions of two intersecting lines.

Radian is the unit of plane angle.

There are three popular system of of angular measurements.

1. Sexagesimal System : circumference , degree, minute

1 min = 60" (seconds of arc)

2. Centesimqal System : grads, centigrad

1 min = 60s of timeime

Introduction to measurement of distance:

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2. Measurement with passometer: Passometer is an instrument shaped like a watch and is

2. Gunter's chain or Surveyor's chain

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Ranging out Survey Lines

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Fig. Reciprocal Levelling

(a) Instruments for the direct measurement of directions :

(b) Instruments for measurements of angles

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2.Magnetic Meridian: It is the direction of north pole indicated by magnetic needle.

1.Whole circle bearing (W.C.B)

2.Reduced Bearing (R.B)

Table 1.1 Conversion of W.C.B. to R.B.

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AB 0º& 90º R.B.= W.C.B. NE

AC 90º& 180º R.B.= 180º-W.C.B. SE

AD 180º& 270º R.B.= W.C.B-180º SW

AF 270º& 360º R.B.= 360º-W.C.B. NW

Table 1.2 Conversion of R.B. to W.C.B.

Line R.B. Rule for W.C.B. W.C.B. b/w

AB NƟ1E W.C.B.= R.B. 0º& 90º

AC SƟ2E W.C.B= 180º-R.B. 90º& 180º