Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER STUDIES
 

Leveling
Prepared by: Khiel S. Yumul
Submitted to: Engr. Genesis A. Casiño
• Definition of leveling

Leveling is the most widely used method for obtaining the elevations of ground
points relative to a reference datum and is usually carried out as a separate
procedure from that used for fixing planimetric position. The basic concept of leveling
involves the measurement of vertical distance relative to a horizontal line of sight.
Hence it requires a graduated staff for the vertical measurements and an instrument
that will provide a horizontal line of sight. A host of definitions have been made by
different authors, and the following are listed:

1. “Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to

determine the elevation of points or their differences in elevation.” - Besavilla.

2. “Leveling is an operation in surveying performed to determine the difference in

levels of two points. By this operation the height of a point from a datum, known as
elevation, is determined.” – A.M. Chandra.

3. “Levelling is the name given to the process of measuring the difference in

elevation between two or more points.” - Uren And Price.
• PRINCIPLE OF LEVELING
The instrument is set up and correctly leveled in order to make the line of sight
through the telescope horizontal. If the telescope is turned through 360o, a
horizontal plane of sight is swept out. Vertical measurements from this plane, using
a graduated leveling staff, enable the relative elevations of ground points to be
ascertained.
Consider the figure in the next slide with the instrument set up approximately
midway between ground points A and B. If the reduced level (RL) of point A is
known and equal to 100.000 m above OD (AOD), then the reading of 3.000 m on a
vertically held staff at A gives the reduced level of the horizontal line of sight as
103.000 m AOD. This sight onto A is termed a backsight (BS) and the reduced level
of the line of sight is called the height of the plane of collimation (HPC). Thus:
RLA + BS = HPC
The reading of 1.000 m onto the staff at B is called a foresight (FS) and shows
the ground point B to be 1.000 m below HPC; therefore its
RL = (103.000 − 1.000) = 102.000m AOD.
 An alternative approach is to subtract the FS from the BS. If the result is positive
then the difference is a rise from A to B, and if negative a fall, i.e.
(3.000 − 1.000) = +2.000 m rise from A to B;
therefore, RLB = 100.000 + 2.000 = 102.000m AOD

Basic Principle of Leveling

• Definition of Terms.
To better understand leveling operations, the following basic terms are defined
below, and some of which are illustrated in the figure below:
1.Level Surface .

It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the direction of

gravity, or the plumb line. It is best represented by the surface of a large body of
still water. However, a level surface is not a plane and does not have a regular form
because of local deviations of the plumb line. To some effect, the direction of gravity
depends on the distribution of the masses of the earth's crust and on their densities.
Such that, if a plumb bob is held vertically at the base of a mountain, it will have the
tendency to deflect toward the mountain. Although the deflection would be small and
negligible, nevertheless it makes the level surface slightly irregular.

2. Level Line

A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are normal to the
direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.

3. Horizontal Surfaces

It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular point. The horizontal

surface is also perpendicular to the plumb line at the same point.
4. Horizontal Line

A straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a. level line

at one point. This line is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at
the point of tangency. Since the mean radius of the earth is
comparatively large, it is practical for most purposes to assume that a
level line and a horizontal line are the same for short distances.

5. Vertical Line

A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of

gravity. It is exemplified by the direction taken by a string supporting
a suspended plumb bob passing through a point. For ordinary
purposes it is convenient to assume that the earth is a true sphere
with a smooth surface, and that a plumb line held at any point on its
surface is always directed toward the center of the sphere.
6. Elevation

For a particular point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below mean
sea level or any other selected datum. Points on or near the surface of the earth
have either positive or negative elevations, depending if the point is above or below
mean sea level.

7. Datum

Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea level
to which elevations of a particular area are referred. Any surface may be used as a
datum when relative elevations over a limited area needs to be established. It is
done by assigning an assumed elevation to a reference point and determining the
elevation of other points in the vicinity with regard to this value.

8. Difference in Elevation

The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between
the two level surfaces in which the points lie.
9. Mean Sea Level

Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway

between high and low tides. It is taken as the reference surface to
which most ground elevations are referred. This surface is determined
by averaging the height of the sea's surface for all its tide stages over a
long period of time which may extend to about 20 years. Readings are
usually taken at hourly intervals on various properly distributed
stations. Mean sea level is not a steady frame of reference due to the
melting of ice in the polar regions the effects of volcanic activity, and
many other influencing factors. It is for these reasons that it is
necessary to have a continuing observation of sea level fluctuations to
detect changes. This surface, which is considered to be at zero
elevation, conforms to the spheroidal shape of the earth and is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at every point.
TYPES OF LEVELING
1. Differential Leveling

Differential leveling is the process of determining the difference in elevation

between two or more points some distance apart. It requires a series of set ups of the
instrument along a general route and for each set up, a rod reading back to the point
of known elevation and forward to a point of unknown elevation are taken. The basic
equipment used in differential leveling include a graduated leveling rod and a leveling
instrument such as a dumpy level, automatic, level, or an engineer's transit. These
leveling instruments are used to establish a horizontal line of sight and to measure
the vertical distance between the line of sight and the point on which the rod is held.

HI = Elev BMa + BS
Elev TP1 = HI - FS
Sample Problem:

 Prepare and complete the differential level notes for the information shown in the
accompanying illustration below. Include the customary arithmetic check.
Sample Problem:

 Prepare and complete the differential level notes for the information shown in the
accompanying illustration below. Include the customary arithmetic check.
Solution:

a) Computation of HI’s and Elevation of Stations:

b) Tabulated solution

c) Arithmetic Check:
2. Double Rodded Leveling

Double-rodded differential leveling is a method of determining differences in

elevation between points by employing two level routes simultaneously. This
method differs from conventional differential leveling in that two turning points are
established such that each setup of the leveling instrument, two sets of
independent backsights and foresights are taken.

This method has an advantage of providing a continuous check on the process of

determining ground elevations while the work is in progress. It is extremely useful
when there is an urgent need to undertake differential leveling in a short period of
time where no established bench marks are available for checking results. Double-
rodded leveling. Is also useful when running a long line of levels which do not close
back on the initial bench mark.
Sample Problem:

 Complete the following differential level notes for a double-rodded line from BM1
to BM2 .
Solutions:

a)

b)
3. Three-Wire Leveling

A more precise method of differential leveling can be attained by the three-wire

method of leveling. It is a method of determining differences in elevation wherein
three horizontal hairs (or threads) are· read and recorded rather than from a single
horizontal hair . The leveling instrument used should be equipped with stadia hairs in
addition to the regular vertical and horizontal hairs. For each backsight and foresight,
all three horizontal hairs are read to the nearest millimeter and the average of the
three readings is taken as the correct value.
Where:
a = Upper stadia hair reading
b = Lower stadia hair reading
c = Horizontal cross-hair reading or rod reading on P
s = Stadia intercept or the difference between the upper stadia
hair reading and the lower stadia hair reading
m = Mean of three - hair readings
HD = Horizontal distance from the level to the rod held at P
K = Stadia interval factor
C = Instrument constant
HI = Height of the line of sight above datum or mean sea level
Elev. of P = Unknown elevation of station P
Sample Problem:

 Complete the following differential level notes shown below.

Solutions:

a) Calculating Mean Hair Readings (m) b) Calculating HI’s and Elevations

4. Profile Leveling

The process of determining differences in elevation along a fixed line at

designated short measured intervals is referred to as profile leveling. It is executed
to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted. A
profile is necessary for the design and construction of roads, railroads, canals,
culverts, bridges, sewer lines, and etc. The fieldwork involved is identical to
differential leveling since it also requires the establishment of turning points on
which, foresight and backsight readings are taken before the terminal point is
reached.

The main difference between these two methods of leveling lies in the number of
foresights taken from each setup of the instrument. In differential leveling only one
foresight is necessary whereas in profile leveling any number of foresights can be
taken. In profile leveling, a series of bench marks intended for use at a later date are
also set up.
Sample Problem:

■ Complete the following set of profile level notes

Solutions: a)Computation of HI’s and Elevation of Stations

b) Determining Foresight and

Backsight Sums.
5. Rise and Fall method of Leveling:

Another method of carrying out a leveling operation is by the rise and fall
method which is popularly adapted by the British. It is a very simple method and
may serve as an alternate method for profile or differential leveling or it may also be
used to check a completed set of level notes.

The rise and fall method is based on the principle that two consecutive readings
from the same instrument position gives the difference in elevation of the two points
sighted. In this method the actual height of instrument has no real significance other
than being the line to which vertical distances are conveniently measured from
various points on the ground. The method relies upon the difference in elevation
between successive points such that each point is considered in relation to the point
immediately preceding it and whose computed elevation (or reduced level, RL) is
either known or has just been calculated.
Sample Problem:

 The figure below shows a schematic arrangement of lines in a level route. The
reduced level of the beginning benchmark (BM #2I5l) is 203. 113m and oil values
indicated represents either a backsight, intermediate foresight, or a foresight
reading taken on stations along the route. Prepare and complete on appropriate
format of level notes for the portrayed information using the rise and fall method
of leveling.
Solutions:

a) Determining Reduced Levels b) Tabulated Solution

c) Arithmetic Check
6. Reciprocal Leveling:

Reciprocal leveling is employed to determine the difference in elevation

between two points when it is difficult or impossible to keep backsights and foresights
short and equal. Such a condition usually exists when running a line of levels across
wide rivers, lakes, or in rugged terrain where deep canyons and ravines are
encountered. In this method of leveling, two sets of rod readings are observed. One
set is taken with the instrument set up close to one point and another with the
instrument set up close to the other point.

Where,
TDE= True Difference in Elevation
Sample Problem:

 In leveling across a deep and wide river, reciprocal level readings were taken
between two points, X and Y, as follows:

a. With instrument set up near X, the rod readings on X are 1.283 and l.285 meters;
on the distant point Y, the rod readings are 2.618, 2.619, 2.621, and 2.622 meters.

b. With instrument set up near Y, the rod readings on Y are 3.478 and 3.476 meters;
on the distant point X, the rod readings are 2.143, 2.140, 2.146, and 2.144 meters.

Determine the true difference in elevation between the two points and the
elevation of Y if the known elevation of X is 290.082 meters.
Solutions:

a) Determining Difference in Elevation b) Tabulated Solution

7. Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric leveling or indirect leveling is defined as the
determination of differences in elevation from observed vertical angles
and either horizontal or inclined distances. Vertical measurements
determined by trigonometric methods are only approximate unless
the observed vertical angles and the required distances are precisely
measured. This method of leveling is used extensively when
undertaking topographic surveys over rugged or rolling terrain since it
provides a rapid means of determining vertical distances and
elevation of points.
This method of determining difference in elevation should be
limited only to horizontal distances not exceeding 300 meters. When
distances are much longer, the combined effects of earths curvature
and refraction must be considered and applied in the calculation of
vertical distances.
■ Typical setup for trigonometric leveling

The vertical distance (V), could

be determined in two ways as
follows:
Sample Problem:

 Let A be a point of elevation 130.48m above datum, and let B and C be points of
unknown elevation. By means of on instrument set 1.22 m above B, vertical
angles are observed, that to A being -14°45’ and that to C being +8°32'. If the
horizontal distance AB is 547 .20m and the horizontal distance BC is 923.95m,
determine the elevations of B and C, making due allowance for earth's curvature
and atmospheric refraction.
 Solutions:
a) Determining Difference in Elevation b) Determining Difference in Elevation
between A and B between A and B

c) Determining Elevation of B and C

8. Barometric Leveling
In barometric leveling, difference in elevation of points are determined by
observations of the prevailing atmospheric pressure. It is based on the basic
principle that the pressure caused by the weight of the column of air above the
observer decreases (or increases) as the observer goes higher (or lower) in
elevation.
Barometric leveling is ideally suited for determining large differences in elevation
rough or mountainous terrain where extensive areas need to be covered. The
method is usually employed on reconnaissance and preliminary surveys where
speed is of primary importance and a high degree. of accuracy is not required.
Precise aneroid barometers which are designed specifically for surveying
applications are called altimeters. ·They are well adapted for field use and can be
efficiently employed for determining elevations which require degrees of precision
commonly acceptable for most engineering constructions. This instrument allows
leveling work to be performed over a large area in just a short period of time since
they are lightweight and very portable.
Barometric Leveling (Altimeter Surveys)

The two principal methods by which altimeter surveys may be conducted are:
the single-base method and the two-base method.
1. Single-Base Method.
In this method, two altimeters and two thermometers are employed. One
altimeter remains at a reference base whose elevation is known while the other
altimeter, which is referred to as the roving altimeter, is taken to other points ,or
field stations whose elevations are to be determined. It is necessary to record the
readings of the altimeters and thermometers at regular intervals of time.

2. Two-Base Method
The two-base method was designed to eliminate the need to apply correctness
for the effects of temperature and relative humidity. The method also improves the
accuracy in determining differences in elevation between field stations and
reference bases.
Barometric Leveling (Altimeter Surveys)
Two-Base Method
Since similar triangles are formed, the
difference in elevation between the low base
and the field station (line S'L') can be
determined by .proportion as follows:

The similar triangles formed

The elevation of the field station, S, is equal
to the sum of the elevation of the low base
and the difference in elevation between the
low base and the field station,
Sample Problem:

 Given the following data gathered from an altimeter survey: Elevation of the high
base, 518m; elevation of the low base, 122 m, altimeter reading at the high base,
5964; and altimeter reading at the low base, 2708. If the altimeter , reading at a
field station is 4150:, determine the elevation of the station.
Solutions:
a) Determining Difference in Elevation and Altimeter Readings

b) Determining Elevation of Field Station

Solutions:
The resultant similar triangles:

By similarity of Triangles:
9. Inverse Leveling
In the conventional method of differential leveling we normally see
to it that the line of sight of the instrument is always higher than any
point on which the leveling rod is held . However, this is not always
the case. It is sometimes necessary to determine the elevation of a
point located higher than the telescope of the instrument.
When an obstruction such as a concrete wall is encountered along
a level route, the usual procedure is to get around it. This may be a
way to go about it, however, it could be time consuming or may not
be possible at all. In such a situation, inverse leveling should solve the
problem. The illustrated example given on the next sample problem
should explain the simple principle of inverse leveling.
Sample Problem:

■ A tall concrete wall is an obstruction along a level route between points A and B.
To proceed with the leveling work, an inverse method of leveling is executed at
the vicinity of the obstruction where rod readings were taken with the rod heId
upside down as shown in figure below. From the observed data portrayed in the
figure, determine the elevation of point. B.
(Leveling over an obstruction)
Solutions:
a)

b) Arithmetic Check
10. Cross-Section Leveling
Cross-sections are short profiles taken perpendicular to the centerline of projects
such as a highway, railroad, irrigation canal, or sewer line. They may also be taken
for borrow-pits and excavations required for buildings, structures, and quarries.
Cross-sections provide the necessary data needed for estimating quantities of
earthwork and for other related purposes.

• Roadway Cross-Sections
This type of cross-section is required for most route projects such as roads and
railroads. The sections are taken at regular intervals usually at full and some plus
stations and where there are abrupt changes in the profile of a centerline.
• Borrow-Pit Cross-Sections
Cross-sections are also employed in the construction of structures and buildings,
and in the excavation of borrow pits. A borrow pit is an open area which is usually
adjacent to a construction project where suitable fill material is excavated.
• Adjustment of Level Circuits

A level circuit (or loop) is a line of levels which begins and ends at the same point
or is run 6etween points of precisely known elevations. In running a closed loop, it
will always be expected that the observed elevations (as computed from the level
notes) will not agree with the known elevations of previously established points
within the loop. The difference between the observed and known elevations of the
initial point, or bench mark, is referred to as' the error of closure.

1. Levels Over One Route

When a line of levels closes back on the bench mark at the beginning of the
survey, the observed elevation of the initial bench mark will not be equal to its
known (or accepted) elevation. Apparently, there will always be an error of closure.

2. Levels Over Different Routes

When the elevation of a bench mark is to be established by running several lines

of levels ; over different routes from a common point, of origin, it will always be
certain that different results will be obtained. In ,this manner, of leveling there will
be as many observed elevations, as there are lines terminating at the bench mark to
be established.
Sample Problem: (Levels Over Different Routes)

Several lines of levels are run over different routes from BM1 in order to establish
the elevation of BM2 . The lengths of these routes and the value of the elevations
determined are shown in the accompanying tabulation. Determine the most probable
elevation of BM2.

Four Levels Routes Taken

Solutions:
IMPORTANT NOTES
• Curvature and Refraction
 The effects of earth curvature and atmospheric refraction are taken into account
in leveling work since the measurements are made in vertical planes and these
effects all occur in the same plane. The combined effects are represented in
figure in below.
 Due to the earth's curvature, a horizontal line departs from a level line by 0.0785
m in one kilometer, varying as the square of the length of the line. This
expression for earth curvature is based on the mean radius of the earth which is
about 6371 km. · In the given figure the vertical distance between the horizontal
line and the level line (or BD) is a measure of the earth's curvature.
• Sources of Error in Leveling
 Accuracy in leveling operations is primarily influenced by the type of instrument
used. A great deal will also depend on the skills of the members of a level party
and the degree of refinement with which the whole operation is performed. If
correct leveling procedures and care are adapted in leveling work, SYSTEMATIC
ERRORS could be significantly reduced or eliminated.
 The remaining errors expected to occur would only then be RANDOM ERRORS.
The principal sources of error in leveling work may emanate from either
instrumental, personal, or , natural errors. These sources of error are each
discussed below as to their nature,. magnitude, 'and how they may be minimized or
eliminated.
1. Instrumental Errors
These errors are attributed to imperfections in the instruments either from faults
in their manufacturer from improper adjustment. In leveling work instrumental
errors are usually due to a defective tripod, a leveling rod not of standard length, or
when the instrument used is out of adjustment.
a) Instrument Out of Adjustment - The most common instrumental error is
caused by the level being out of adjustment.
• Sources of Error in Leveling
b) Rod Not Standard Length - This is usually due to imperfections in their
manufacture. Inaccurate rod graduations can cause errors in measured vertical
distances similar to those resulting from incorrect markings on a tape.
c) Defective Tripod - The movement of the level due to settling of the tripod legs can
cause possible errors in leveling work.
2. Personal Errors
Although personal errors occur largely due to the limitations of the senses of touch,
sight, or hearing of individuals, the skills, training, and teamwork of the members of a
leveling party are also major factors to be considered. Personal errors are usually caused
by erroneous manipulations and careless handling of instruments when making
observations. Such errors include the following:
a) Bubble Not Centered - Rod readings will be in the error, when bubble is not
centered in the level vial.
b) Parallax- If a pressure gauge or any graduated circular meter is viewed from
different angles, one will notice that a number of s1ightly divergent value could be
read. This is due to the effect of parallax.
c) Faulty Rod Readings - An incorrect rod reading is usually the result of the length of
sight, poor weather conditions, and the skill of the instrumentman and the rodman
• Sources of Error in Leveling
d) Rod Not Held Plumb - Aside from holding the rod on, a firm and definite
point, it should also be held as nearly vertical as possible.
e) Incorrect Setting of Target - The rodman at time fails to set properly, the
target when a high rod reading is made with it. During use, the target may slip
downward because it is not clamped firmly at the exact position signaled by the
instrumentman.
f) Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances - In levering work it is usually
good practice to make backsight and corresponding foresight distances nearly
equal.
3. Natural Errors
These are errors which a re due to natural sources and could not be totally
removed but their effects on be reduced by applying corrections and using good
judgment. Such errors include the effects of the earth's curvature, atmospheric
refraction, variations in temperature, wind, and etc.
a) Curvature of the Earth - The effect of ·curvature of the earth is to increase the
rod reading from source the error amounts to about 0.07 cm per 100meters. This
error is introduced even if the instrument used is in perfect adjustment. It, however,
only occurs in extra long sights and when backsight and foresight are not made
equal.
• Sources of Error in Leveling
b) Atmospheric Refraction - Reading errors are likely to occur when
heat waves are present since it makes the rod appear unsteady when
a sight taken on it.
c) Temperature Variations - Changes in temperature causes
leveling rods to either expand or contract and these could introduce
errors when taking rod readings.
d) Wind- A strong wind can shake a leveling instrument making it
difficult to center the bubble in the level vial.· It can also exert a
sufficient amount of force to cause an extended rod to vibrate making
it stand unsteady and hard to read or plumb.
e) Settlement of the Instrument- In soft or thawing ground, mud,
and swamps the instrument may settle in the interval of time between
rod readings.
f) Faulty Turning Points - In differential leveling work, a poorly
chosen turning point may be a source of error.
• Common Mistakes in Leveling
The following are some of the most commonly made mistakes in leveling work:
1. Misreading The Rod
During leveling the instrumentman may occasionally read the rod incorrectly;
for example, he may read 2.75 m instead of 1.75 m. This mistake most frequently
occurs when the line of sight to the rod is partially obstructed by vegetation or
other objects in the field.
2. Incorrect Recording
The recorder should always call out the readings as he records them in order to
prevent the recording of incorrect values. To detect mistakes in recording rod
readings, the best method is to read the rod, record the reading, and then sight the
rod again to check if the value recorded is the correct reading.
3. Erroneous Computations
Although level notes only require simple additions and subtractions, mistakes in
these computations are still committed. For this reason, mathematical checks
should always be performed to ensure that only correct values are determined.
• Common Mistakes in Leveling
The following are some of the most commonly made mistakes in leveling work:
4. Rod Not Fully Extended
When using a Philadelphia rod it is important that it is fully extended when
reading the high (or long) rod. The two sliding sections should lock properly into
position. The clamp should also be tightened firmly to avoid the upper position of
the rod from sliding downward.
5. Moving Turning Points
A turning point carelessly or accidentally moved out of its position by a rodman
will cause a serious mistake in leveling work. This mistake could be prevented by
using only stable and clearly defined turning points or by marking the position of
the rod with paint, lumber crayon, or chalk.