GENG 3 - CARTOGRAPHY

DEFINITION
Topographic Maps – shows by conventional symbols the culture,
drainage, relief and vegetation features of parts of the earth
surface.
Hydrographic Maps – is similar to a topographic maps but has its own
particular symbols. It contain lines of equal depth, interpolated
from soundings, datum used for elevations, conventional
symbols for land features.
METHODS OF REPRESENTING RELIEFS
a. spot heights f. shading
b. hachures g. relief models
c. form lines h. ridge and stream lining
d. contour lines i. subaqueous contour
e. layer tinting
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Spot heights – the elevations of important features and critical points
such as road junctions, peaks, summits, sags and highway
crossings are indicated on the map and are known as spot
heights or spot elevations.
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Hachures – are a series of short lines drawn in the direction of the
slope. For a steep slope the lines are heavy and closely spaced.
For a gentle slope they are fine and widely spaced.
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Form lines – are drawn when not enough vertical control is available or
when the surface is too irregular or intricate to contour.
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Contour lines – the most widely used method of quantitatively
representing hills, mountains, depressions and ground surface
undulations on a two-dimensional sheet of paper is by contour
lines or isohypses.
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Layer tinting – parts of a map lying between two particular contours
may be colored in order that the distribution of high and low land
can be seen at a glance.
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Shading – shading is an old method used to show relative elevations
on maps. It is dependent upon shadows cast by the elevated
portions of the land.
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Relief or terrain models – provide the most striking and realistic
expression of topography.
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Ridge and stream lining – is mainly used to emphasize the location of
low and high ground
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Subaqueous contours – topographic maps often include areas of
navigable waters such as the seashore and large inland lakes.
The portrayal of relief of the ground underwater is done by using
depth curves or subaqueous contours.
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TYPES OF CONTOURS

a. index contours
b. intermediate contours
c. supplemental contours
d. depression contours
e. approximate contours
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Index contours – as a convenience in scaling elevations, and to provide
ease and speed in reading contours, a contour is shown by a
heavier line at regular intervals on a topographic map. These
heavier lines which are normally twice the gauge of the standard
contours are called the index contours. They are usually drawn
every fifth contour and carry the contour number or elevation
designation.
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Intermediate contours – the four lighter weight contours found between
the index contours are the intermediate contours. These lines
are not usually labelled except where the terrain is relatively flat
and their elevations are not readily obvious.
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Depression contours – are drawn to show how spots such as
excavations around which contours close.
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Supplemental contours – certain portions of the map area sometimes
are so flat or level that the contours are too far apart to show
properly important breaks in the terrain. To better depict the
relief and remedy such situations, supplemental or auxillary
contours are used.
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Approximate contours – in some instances contour accuracy cannot be
definitely determined. The area maybe inaccessible on the
ground or it may be difficult to interpret contours from aerial
photographs when heavy cloud or shadows occur. To portray a
reasonable idea of relative elevations, the map maker has to
make an educated guess rather than have a blank area in the
map. In these cases, the approximate contour is used.
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The contour interval – the constant vertical distance between two
adjacent contour lines is termed the contour interval
- commonly fixed at multiple of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100m.

For the following kind of terrain:

- flat to gently rolling – 1 to 5m.
- hilly – 5 to 20m.
- mountainous – 25 to 100m.
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Contour Interval for Different Map Scales

Scale Interval Scale Interval

1:500 0.5m 1:25000 10m
1:2000 1m 1:50000 20m
1:5000 2m 1:100000 25m
1:10000 5 or 10m 1:250000 50m
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Selection of Contour Interval

1. Relative Cost
2. Purpose of the Map
3. Nature of the Terrain
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Characteristics of Contours

1. All points on any one contour have the same elevation.

2. Every contour closes on itself, either within or beyond the limits
of the map. The closure may occur within the mapped area, but
often happens outside the area and hence will not appear on the
map sheet.
3. A contour which closes within the limits of the map indicates
either a summit or a depression. Contours which increase in
elevation represent hills, those which decrease in elevation
portray valleys or excavations.
4. Contours on the ground cannot cross one another except where
an overhanging cliff, a vertical ledge or wall is represented on
the map.
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Characteristics of Contours
5. Contours are spaced evenly on a uniform slope.
6. Contours are straight and parallel to each other on a plane
surface.
7. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged terrain.
8. The horizontal distance between adjacent contours indicates the
steepness of the slope of the ground. Where the contours are
relatively close together, the slope is comparatively steep, where
the contours are far apart, the slope is gentle.
9. Contours cross curbs and a crowned sloping street in typical U-
shaped curves.
10. As a contour approaches s stream, the contour turns upstream
until it intersects the shoreline. It then crosses the stream at right
angles to the center of the bed, and turns back along the
opposite bank of the stream.
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Locating Contour Lines By Interpolation
The process of locating contour lines proportionally on the map
between plotted points is termed interpolation.

Some Methods Include:

1. By estimation
2. Rubber Band Method
3. Analytical Method
4. Triangle and Scale Method
5. Template Method
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Locating Contour Lines By Interpolation

By Estimation
The process of interpolating contours by estimation is fast and
can produce results which are reasonable if extreme care is
exercised, and also if supplemented by approximate mental
computation.

The first step is to make a careful study of the positions of the

contour points and to try to visualize the changes in slope of the
terrain.
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Locating Contour Lines By Interpolation

By Rubber Band Method

The use of a rubber band is another convenient method of
interpolating contour lines. The rubber band selected should be
sufficiently wide such that graduations at equal intervals can be
marked on it to form some kind of an elastic scale.
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Locating Contour Lines By Interpolation

By Analytical Method
Arithmetical computations are employed where high accuracy is
desired in locating contour lines. This method is well suited for
drawing large-scale maps. Distances between points of known
elevations are measured and the location of contour points are
determined by proportion.
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Locating Contour Lines By Interpolation

By Triangle and Scale Method

The method of interpolating points by using an engineer’s scale
and a triangle is an application of the geometric method of
dividing a line into a convenient number of equal parts. The
method provides an accurate and rapid procedure for
interpolating contour lines in which mathematical computations
are eliminated.
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Locating Contour Lines By Interpolation

By Template Method
There are graphical devices which are used for interpolating
contour lines between plotted positions. These devices allow
many interpolations to be made quickly and accurately. One
such device is the contour template. It consists of a series of
equally spaced parallel lines that are drawn on transparent film
or paper using any specified scale. Usually, each fifth or tenth
line in the template is drawn heavier than the rest and
correspondingly numbered.
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Common Types of Contour Templates
1. Template with Equally Spaced Parallel Lines
2. Template with Converging Lines

Methods of Obtaining Contours

1. Direct Method
Are those in which the contours to be plotted are actually traced
out in the field. The procedure involves the location and marking
of a series of points on each contour line. These points are
surveyed and plotted in the field and the appropriate contours
are drawn through them. The trace-contour method is one such
example that is used.
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Trace-Contour Method
One of the most accurate and direct procedure of locating
contours is by the trace-contour method. Although this method is
quite accurate, it tends to be slow and costly to undertake. Plane
table is commonly used because requires fewer points less time
is needed.

Methods of Obtaining Contours

2. Indirect Method
Comprise those in which the points located as regards position
and elevation are not necessarily situated on the contours to be
shown, but serve on being plotted, as a basis for the
interpolation of the required contours.
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The following field methods for obtaining topographic detail fall under
indirect method:

1. Coordinate Method
2. Controlling-Point Method
3. Cross Profile Method
4. Photogrammetric Method
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Coordinate Method
One way of locating and plotting the contours of a given area is
to utilize a grid or coordinate system. Dimensions are usually 5,
10, 15, 20, or 30m.

1. On a grid system lay out the area by establishing corners and

perimeter stakes
2. At the intersections of the grid lines determine the elevations.
3. Plot the points of known elevation to the desired scale in plan.
4. Draw the contour lines by interpolation.
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Controlling-Point Method
The controlling-point method of obtaining contours is considered
to be one with the most universal application. Points are
selected at random or along selected lines. Specifically, the
controlling points are the points on the earth’s surface where
changes on ground slope occur.

Cross-Profile Method
Is principally used in locating contours along a route or other
narrow area of terrain. It is a modification of the method of cross-
sectioning in route surveys. The method is particularly
appropriate for surveys required in the construction of roadways,
railways, canals, irrigation ditches and in the installation of
pipelines or sewer lines.
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Photogrammetric Method
The availability of aerial photographs and the development of
photogrammetric methods have expanded rapidly our know-how
in the construction of topographic maps. Using photogrammetric
method, contours maybe plotted from aerial photographs of the
terrain