Fundamentals in Surveying

Unit 2. Horizontal Distance Measurement

One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of the distance between two
points on the earth’s surface for use in fixing position, setout and in scaling. Usually spatial
distance is measured. In plane surveying, the distances measured are reduced to their
equivalent horizontal distance either by the procedures used to make the measurement or by
applying numerical corrections for the slope distance (spatial distance).

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the topic, the learners are expected to:
a. differentiate the different methods employed in determining horizontal distances
b. apply the different corrections in tape measurements

2.1 Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances

The method to be employed in measuring distance depends up on the required accuracy of the
measurement, and this in turn depends on purpose for which the measurement is intended.
1. Distance by Pacing: – consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required
distance. A pace is defined as the length of a natural step in walking. To pace a
distance, it is necessary to first determine the length of one’s pace. This is referred to as
the pace factor. In here approximate results are satisfactory and usually used in
reconnaissance surveys & in small scale mapping.

Example:
A 45-m course, line AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are shown in the
accompanying table:
Trial Line Taped Distance No. of Paces Mean
AB 50
1
BA 53
2
AB 51
3
BA 45 53 52
4
AB 52
5
BA 53
6
312
Sum
Requirements:
a) Determine his pace factor.
b) If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772 and 769 paces in walking an
unknow distance CD, what is the length of the line.
c) Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0 m, determine the relative
precision of the measurement performed.
Solution:
a) Determine the pace factor
L= 45 m , ( the length of line AB)
n1= 6 (number of trials taken on line AB)
Sum1= 312

Department of Civil
 M1 = 312/6 = 52 paces (mean number of paces in walking line AB)
PF = L/M1 =45 m/ 312 paces = 0.865 m/pace (pace factor of the surveyor)
b) Determining Unknown Distance
n2 = 6 (number of trials taken on line CD)
Sum2 = (771+770+768+770+772+769) = 4620
M2 = 4620/6 = 770 paces (mean number of paces in walking line CD)
PD= M2(PF)=770 x 0.865 = 666.1 m (paced length of line
CD)
c) Determining the relative precision
TD =667.0 m taped distance
PD= 666.1 m paced distance
RP= (TD-PD)/TD = (667 -666.1)/667
=(0.9/667)
=1/741 say 1/700 relative precision of the measurement

2. Distance by Mechanical Devices

a. odometer of a vehicle: - based on diameter of tires (no of revolutions X
wheel diameter); this method gives a fairly reliable result provided a check is done
periodically on a known length. During each measurement a constant tire
pressure has to be maintained.

b. Measuring wheel. A measuring wheel basically consists of a small wheel which is

attached to a rod and handle and pushed over by an operator. It is suitable for measuring
distances, usually in meters, along irregular or curved lines and boundaries by its
calibrated automatic recorder.

3. Distance by Tachometry: -distance can be can be measured indirectly based on

the optical geometry of the surveying instruments like transit or theodolite. The
method is quite rapid and sufficiently accurate for many types of surveying operations.
4. Distance by Photogrammetry. It refers to the measurement of distances using images on
photographs.

5. Distance by Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM). EDM allows a rapid and accurate
determination of linear distances and vertical angles suitable even for large extent
surveys requiring higher orders of precision. It is based on the basic principle that the
time required for a radio or light wave to travel from one end of a line to the other is a
function of the length measured.

6. Distances by Laser Distance Measurements

7. Distance by Taping. This method involves direct measurement of distances with a

tape. Steel tapes are most commonly used.
 Fundamentals in Surveying
1

The following table summarizes the degree of accuracy obtained by

different distance measurement methods& when it can be applied.
1/50 to 1/200 Reconnaissance, small-scale mapping, rough planning
Method Precision Uscehsecking tape measurements, quantity surveys,

Pacing- Odometer -
1/250 to 1/1000 Location of details for topographic mapping,
Pedometer
rough traverses, checking more accurate measurements.

Stadia tachometry 1/1000 to 1/5000 Ordinary land surveys, control of route and
topographic surveys, construction surveys
Ordinary taping 1/10,000 to 1/30,000 Traverses for city surveys, baselines for triangulation of
low accuracy, precise construction works
Precise taping 1/100,000 to Firsts, second and third order triangulation for large
1/10,000,000 areas, city surveys, long bridges, and tunnels.

Baseline taping ± 0.04’, ± 1/300,000 Traverse, triangulation & trilateration, for control surveys
of all types and construction surveys
EDM Up to 1/50,000 Location of details for topo-mapping, second & third order
ground control surveys
Photogrammetry

- Degree of accuracy depends on the purpose and extent of the survey and cost of operation.

- Choice of a particular method is governed by the accuracy required for the work,
cost, time and other constraints.

Some surveying works require high accuracy hence high precision equipments
should be used (e.g. Hydrologic and control surveying).

Examples: EDM instruments can perform Surveys involving long lines most
accurately and economically.

Where short distances are encountered or specific construction

layout requirements are present, taping can be more practical.
Reconnaissance, checks on tape measurements- using approximate methods
In small topographic surveys, preliminary surveys for projects of limited extent –
use stadia method.

A combination of methods can also be applied for some surveying works example route
survey

2.2 Tape Surveying

Tape surveying is a method of land surveying in which only linear quantities are measured.
Accessories: – Ranging poles-most of the time painted in red & white, 2-3m long used to align
a straight line between two points.
- Taping pins –for marking ends of tapes or intermediate points when required
- Plumb bobs – to indicate vertical direction
- Hand levels- for establishing horizontal line of sight on sloping ground.

Department of Civil
Engineering
Systematic Errors in Taping and Corrections

Systematic errors in taping are due to (1) incorrect tape length, (2) tape not horizontal, (3)
fluctuation in temperature of the tape, (4) in correct tension or pull, (5) sag in tape, (6) incorrect
alignment and (7) tape not straight.

Taping operations could either be of the following: MEASURING is taping to determine an

unknown length and LAYING is taping for the purpose of laying out a required specified length.
Regardless of which of these categories is involved, there are some corrections which are
applied to the original.

During the taping when a tape is too long, a large enough value could not be obtained such that a
positive correction is made. This means that if the tape is too long, it will itake fewre tape
lengths to measure a distance than would be required for a shorter but correct length of tape.

Rule: When measuring with a tape too long, add correction; tape too short, subtract. Do
the reverse when laying out.

1. Correction due to incorrec tape length - a tape may be too short or too long when
compared to a standard tape under specific conditions of tension, temperature and method
of support. This is often due to imperfections in their manufacture, stretching, or wear. When
the tape is too short the surveyor will actually measure a distance less than that shown on
the graduations. Hence, a negative correction is needed. Similarly, when the tape is too long, a
distance greater than that shown on the graduations is measured, hence a positive
correction is applied.

Corr = TL -NL , where Corr is the absolute value for the correction per tape length, TL is the
true or actual length of the tape and NL is the nominal length of the tape.

Cl = Corr (ML/NL) and CL = ML ± Cl, where Cl = total correction to be applied to the

measured length to be laid out, CL= corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out,
ML
= measured length or length to be laid out and NL = nominal length of the tape.

Example: The length of a line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m. When the tape is
compared with standard invar tape it is found to be 0.016 m too longin almost the same
conditions of support, tensions, and temperature that existed during the measurement of the line.
Determine the correct length of AB.

Given:
NL = 50 m
ML = 465.285 m
Corr = 0.016 m per tape length

Solution:
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟
𝐶𝑙 = , Cl = corr (ML/NL) = 0.016 (465.285/50) = 0.149 m, tape too long.
𝑀𝐿 𝑁𝐿

CL = ML ± Cl = 465.285 + 0.149 = 465.434 m., correct length of line AB

2. Correction due to slope (tape is not horizontal):- If the tape is inclined, an error, which is
cumulative in nature, is introduced. Errors from this source may be considerable when
measuring slope distances over hilly ground.

Where considerable slopes exist, this error will be large and slope correction Ch is required. If
the elevation difference between A and B is known as h and s is the slope or inclined distance,
then;

1. Gentle slopes (Less than 20%)

Ch =ℎ2/2𝑠

2. Steep Slopes (Between 20% and 30%)

 Ch= (ℎ2/2𝑠) + (h4/8s3)

3. Very steep slopes (Greater than 30%)

Ch = s(1-cosϴ), where ϴ is the slope.
For relatively short lines involved in taping the first term will generally suffice.
The equivalent horizontal distance d is determined by subtracting the slope correction Ch from
the measured slope distance s or d = s - Ch.
Example. Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49 m and 660.97 m, respectively. The
differences in elevation are12. 22 m for points A and B, and 10.85 m, for points B and C. Using
the approximate slope correction formula for gentle slopes, dtermine the the horizontal length of
line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling slope.
Given:
s1 = 330.49 m slope distance of line AB
s2 = 660.97 m slope distance of line BC
h1= 12.22 m difference in elevation between A and B
h2 = 10.85 m difference in elevation between B and C
Solution: -
d1 = s1 – (h 12/2s1) = 330.49 – 12.222 / (2 · 330.49)
= 330.49 – 0.23
= 330.26 m horizontal length of AB

d2= s2 – (h 22/2s2) = 660.970 – 10.852 / (2 · 660.97)

= 660.97 – 0.09
= 660.88 m horizontal length of BC

D = d1 + d2 = 330.26 + 660.88 = 991.14 m horizontal length of line ABC

3. Corrections due to variations in temperature- this causes expansion or contraction of the

material of which the tape is made during measurement where temperature rises or goes down.

If the standard temperature (Ts) and field temperature (T) are different the amount of
correction for temperature, Ct is Ct = CL (T - Ts)

Where C =coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the tape, C=0.0000116

per degree Celcius
L = the total measured distance or the nominal tape length in m
Example. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/°C is known to be 50
m long at 20°C. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to be 532.28 m. long
when the temperature was 35°C. Determine the following:
a) Temperature correction per tape length
b) Temperature correction for the measured line.
c) Correct length of the line.
Solution:
a) Ct = CL (T - Ts) = 0.0000116(50)(35-20)
= +0.0087 m (correction per tape length, tape too long)
b) Ct’= CL (T - Ts) = 0.0000116(532.28)(35-20)
= +0.0926 m (correction due to temperature for the measured line)

Alternative solution:
Ct’= L(Ct) / 50= +0.0087(532.28) / 50 = +0.0926 m
c) L’ = L ± Ct’ = 532.28 + 0.0926 = 532.37 m.

4. Corrections due to variations in tension / pull -if the pull used in the field is different
from that used during calibration, the tape changes its length slightly according to the
relationship between stress and strain. If L is the measured length, Pm is the pull applied in the
field (kg or N), Ps is the standard pull., A is the cross sectional area of the tape (cm2 or mm2)
and E is the modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape (kg/cm2 or N/mm2), then the
correction for pull Cp is given by

(𝑃𝑚−𝑃𝑠)𝐿
Cp = 𝐴𝐸 and L՜ = L ± Cp, where L՜ is the corrected length of the
measured length.

The cross sectional area A of the tape may also be calculated by dividing the total weight
W of the tape by the product of its length L and unit weight (w) of the tape.

𝑊
A=
𝐿(𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

Example: A baseline was measured using a 100 m tape which is standardized at 15°C with a
standard pull of 10 kg. The recorded distance was found out to be 430.60 meters. At the time of
measurement, the temperature was 20°C and the pull exerted was 16 kg. Determine the true
length of the base if the weight of one cubic cm of steel is 7.86 grams , weight of the tape is 2.67
kg, modulus of elasticity is 2x106 kg/cm2, coefficient of thermal expansion is 7x10-7 m/°C.

Solution:
Ct = CL(T-Ts) = (7x10-7m/°C)(20°C-15°C)(100m) = 0.00035 m , correction due to temperature
(𝑃𝑚−𝑃𝑠)𝐿
Cp = , solve first for cross sectional area of the tape
𝐴𝐸
A(100)(100)(7.86) = 2.67
1000 A= 0.034 cm2.
Therefore, Cp = (16-10)(100)
0.034(2x106) Cp = 0.009 m., correction due to
pull Correction per tape lengths = Ct + Cp
= 0.00035 + 0.009 = 0.00935 m
Total Correction = (no. of tape lengths) x (correction per tape length)
Total Correction = (430.6/100)(0.00935) = 0.0403 m
True length of the base line = 430.60 ± 0.0403 = 430.60 + 0.0403 = 430.6403 m.

5. Correction due to sag. Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end graduations
since the the tape length remains the same. This, when a stretched tape sags, the actual distance
between the points is something less than the reading on the tape. The magnitude of the error
due to sag depends on the weight of the tape, the unsopported length, and the tension applied.
The correction due to sag is the differenec in length between the arc formed by the tape and the
subtending chord.

Cs = w2L3 or Cp = W2L
24P2 24P2
Where Cs = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports (m). Note: it is always subtracted.
w = weight of the tape per unit length (kg/m)
W= total weight of the tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of the tape (m)
P= applied tension or pull on the tape (kg)

Example: A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its endpoints and at 8-m and
25-m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine the following:
a). Correction due to sag between 0-m and 8-m marks, 8-m and 25-m marks and 25-m
and 50-m marks.
b.) Correction due to sag for one tape length
c.) Correct distance between the ends of the tape.
Given:
L= 50 m length of the tape
L1=8 m length of the first span
 L2= 17 m length of the second span
L3= 25 m length of the third span
Solution:
a. Determining the correction due to sag for each span
Cs1 = w2L1 3 / 24P2 = (0.04)2 (8)3 / 24(6)2 =0.0009 m
Cs2 = w2L2 3 / 24P2 =(0.04)2 (17)3 / 24(6)2 =0.0091 m
Cs3 = w2L3 3 / 24P2 =(0.04)2 (25)3 / 24(6)2 =0.0289 m
b. Determine Total Sag Correction for one Tape Length
Cs = Cs1 + Cs2 +Cs3 = 0.0009 + 0.0091 +0.0289 = 0.0389 m
c. Determine correct distance between tape ends
L’ = L – Cs = 50 – 0.0389 = 49.9611 m. Note: sag correction is always subtracted

6. Correction due to misalignment. If the end of the tape is out of line by a distance in a
length, the error in due to incorrect alignment occurs. The error cannot be eliminated, but can
be reduced to a negligible amount by lining-in carefully, setting marking pins properly,
stretching the tape taut, and keeping the tape straight. The tape may also be laid out straight by
snapping it while tension is applied.

Combined Corrections:
Example : A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m steel tape
supported through out its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a mean temperature of 35°C.
Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of standard length at 20°C under a pull
of 5 kg. The cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 sq cm, its coeffecient of linear expansion is
0.0000116/°C and the modulus of elacticity of steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2.

Given:
L= 2395.25 m T=35°C A=0.03 cm2
NL=30 m Ts=20°C C=0.0000116/°C
Pm=4 kg Ps=5 kg E=2.0 x 106 kg/cm2

Solution:
a. Ct = CL(T-Ts) = 0.0000116(2395.25)(35-20)
Ct = +0.42 m correction due to temperature for the measured length, tape too long
b. Cp= (Pm-Ps)L / AE = (4-5)(2395.25) / (0.03)(2.0x106)
Cp= -0.04 m correction due to pull, tape too short
c. L’ = L ± Ct ± Cp = 2395.25 + 0.42 – 0.04 = 2395.m , corrected length of the line

Exercises:
1. A 100-m steel tape standardized at 20°C had a length of 100.600 m. It was used to
measure a line A to B on slightly sloping ground. The recorded tape distance was 622.70
m. The temperature at the time of measurement being 29°C. The stadia horizontal
distance for the same line was only 560.00 m. Upon investigations, the discrepancy was
found to be due to the fact that a 10-m length (between 75-m and 85-m mark) was cut
off.
a. What is the true length of the sloping line?
b. What is the horizontal distance of the same line if the difference of elevation between
A and B is 0.72 m? Work up to nearest millimeter.
Ans: a)560.822 m b.) 560.821 m.
2. A line is recorded as 472.90 m long. It is measured with a 0.65 kg. tape which is 30.005
m long at 20°C under a 50 N pull supported at both ends. During measurement the
temperature is 5°C and the tape is suspended under a 75 N pull. The line is measured on
3% grade. What is the true horizontal distance ? E= 200 GPa, A= 3mm2,
C=0.0000116m/°C.
Ans. 472.561 m.
References:
1. LA PUTT, Juny P.(1987) Elementary Surveying, 3rd Edition.Phil Graphics Arts Inc.
2. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology, ADDIS
ABABA UNIVERSITY(2008) , Surveying I Course Material.
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