FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

▪ Introduction of Surveying ▪ Measurement of Vertical Distances

▪ Errors and Mistakes ▪ Differential Leveling/Profile Leveling

▪ Measurement of Horizontal Distances

▪ Tacheometry
▪ Corrections in Taping
▪ Stadia Leveling
▪ Measurement of Angles and Directions
▪ Stadia Traverse

▪ Traverse Computations ▪ Topographic Survey

▪ Area Computations ▪ Triangulation

▪ Omitted Measurements ▪ Hydrographic Surveying

 TACHEOMETRY
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
In surveying, tacheometry is defined as a procedure of obtaining horizontal distances
and differences in elevation based on the optical geometry of the instrument
employed. This rapid and indirect method of measurement uses subtended intervals
and angles observed with an instrument, such as transit or theodolite, on a graduated
rod or scale. When compared to taping and differential leveling, the distances and
elevations obtained by tacheometric methods are usually of a lower order of accuracy.
The Stadia Method
The word stadia is the plural of stadium. It comes from the Greek word for a
unit of length originally applied in measuring distances for athletic contests. A stadia
denoted 600 Greek units, or 184 m 93 cm (606 ft 9 in) by present-day international
standards. The word stadia, as it is used now in surveying, was derived from the latter.
The term is now applied to the cross hairs and rod used in making measurements, as
well as to the method itself.
 TACHEOMETRY
The equipment for stadia
measurements consists of a
telescope with two horizontal
hairs called stadia hairs and a
graduated rod called a stadia rod.
When the stadia hairs and
the cross hairs are simultaneously
visible and in focus, they are called fixed stadia hairs. In this type of arrangement,
stadia hairs are mounted on the same ring (or reticule) and in the same plane as
the cross hairs, and are not adjustable with respect to each other. The distinct
advantage of fixed stadia hairs is that there is no chance of accidentally altering
the spacing between them.
In the disappearing type of stadia hairs, the hairs are mounted in a different
plane slightly behind the rear of the cross hairs. The stadia hairs and cross hairs are
simultaneously visible in this conditions, and the focus of the eyepiece has to be
 TACHEOMETRY
Simultaneously visible in this condition. Distances
can be measured very rapidly by the stadia
method. The stadia method is especially well
adapted to mapping requirements and is widely
used for locating details and contour points in
topographic surveys. It is far more rapid than
taping, and under certain conditions could be
made as precise.

Stadia Rods
There are various types of markings used
on stadia rods but all have geometric figures
designed to be legible when used for measuring
long distances. Stadia rods are usually graduated
in decimals of a foot but may be graduated in
decimals of a meter or a yard.
 TACHEOMETRY
Principle of Stadia
The stadia method is based on the principle that in similar triangles
corresponding sides are similar. Figure shown below illustrated the principle upon
which the stadia method is based. The stadia hairs are shown as points a and b; the
distance between the hairs is i. For this particular set up, the line of sight of the
telescope is horizontal and the stadia rod is held vertical at the distant point. The
apparent locations of the stadia hairs on the rod are points A and B and the stadia
interval is s. Light rays from points A and B passing through the lens center form a pair
of similar triangles ∆AmB and ∆amb. Since ab is equal to a’b’, by similar triangles,
𝑓 where:
𝑓: 𝑖 = 𝑑: 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑= 𝑠
𝑖 K = stadia interval factor = (f/i)
𝑓 C = stadia constant = (f + c)
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐷 =𝑑+ 𝑓+𝑐 = 𝑠+𝐶 s = stadia interval/intercept = a – b
𝑖
a = upper stadia hair reading
𝑫 = 𝑲𝒔 + 𝑪 b = lower stadia hair reading
 TACHEOMETRY
Standard Symbol Used in Stadia Measurement
where:
f = focal length of the lens
f1 = image distance or length from the center of the
objective lens to the plane of the cross wires when
the telescope is focused on some definite points
f2 = object distance or length from the center of the
objective lens to a definite point when the telescope
is focused on that point
i = distance or spacing between stadia hairs
c = distance from the center of the instrument to the
center of the objective lens
C = stadia constant or the distance from the center of the
instrument to the principal focus
d = distance from the focal point in front of the telescope
to the face of the rod
D = distance from the instrument center to the face of the
rod
K = stadia interval factor or K = f / I
s = stadia or rod intercept; the difference between the
upper stadia hair reading and the lower stadia hair
reading
 TACHEOMETRY
Stadia Constant (C)
The distance C is termed the stadia constant. It is the distance from the center of
the instrument to the principal focus. The quantity is composed of the focal length (f),
which remains constant, and the distance (c) from the center of the instrument to the
center of the objective lens. The distance, c, varies such a small amount that essentially
it may be considered a constant.
In the older instruments, the value of C varies from about 0.18 to 0.43 m. These
older models, which contain movable objective lens, are now being replaced by
internal-focusing lens. In the newer telescopes, the geometry of the optics is such that
the values of the stadia interval factor changes slightly when focusing the internal lens.
With present-day instruments, and under ordinary conditions, C may be considered as
0.30 m for external focusing telescopes. The important advantage of internal-focusing
telescopes used in stadia work is that they are so constructed that C is either ZERO or
small enough to be neglected.
 TACHEOMETRY
Stadia Interval Factor (K)
The ratio f/i is called the stadia interval factor and is designated by the letter K.
For any given measurement, this value remains constant and depends only on the
spacing between the stadia hairs. The manufacturer of the instrument can space the
stadia hairs with relation to the focal length so as to obtain any convenient value of K
desired. The most common value of K, however, is 100.
Horizontal Stadia Sights
 TACHEOMETRY
Problem 1
In determining the stadia interval factor (K) of a transit, a stadia rod was held
vertically at several points along measured distances from the instrument (see
accompanying figure), and the corresponding stadia hair readings were observed.
The distances and the observed readings were recorded as follows:
DISTANCE FROM STADIA HAIR READINGS
POINT TRANSIT TO ROD
(m) UPPER READING (m) LOWER READING (m)

a 30 0.96 0.66
b 45 1.10 0.64
c 60 1.21 0.60
Determining the stadia
d 75 1.35 0.58
interval factor of the
e 90 1.47 0.56
instrument. Assume that the
f 105 1.57 0.53
stadia constant (C) is zero.
g 120 1.72 0.50
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝑑
𝑑 = 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶; 𝐶 = 0 → 𝐾 =
𝑠
𝑑𝑎 30
𝐾𝑎 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎
𝑠𝑎 (0.96 − 0.66)
𝑑𝑏 45
𝐾𝑏 = = = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟔𝟑 𝑑𝑒 90
𝑠𝑏 (1.10 − 0.64) 𝐾𝑒 = = = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟗𝟎
𝑑𝑐 60 𝑠𝑒 (1.47 − 0.56)
𝐾𝑐 = = = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟔 𝑑𝑓 105
𝑠𝑐 (1.21 − 0.60) 𝐾𝑓 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟔
𝑑𝑑 75 𝑠𝑓 (1.57 − 0.53)
𝐾𝑑 = = = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟒𝟎 𝑑𝑔 120
𝑠𝑑 (1.35 − 0.58)
𝐾𝑔 = = = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟔
𝑠𝑔 (1.72 − 0.50)
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝐾𝑎 + 𝐾𝑏 + 𝐾𝑐 + 𝐾𝑑 + 𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑓 + 𝐾𝑔
𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝐾 =
7
100.00 + 97.83 + 98.36 + 97.40 + 98.90 + 100.96 + 98.36
𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝐾 =
7
𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝑲 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Problem 2
An engineer’s level with a stadia constant of 0.30 m was set up on the line between
two points, A and B, and the following hair readings were observed.
STADIA HAIR READINGS
ROD POSITION
UPPER READING, a MIDDLE READING, c LOWER READING, b
Rod held at A 1.330 m 1.175 m 1.022 m
Rod held at B 1.972 m 1.854 m 1.736 m

If the stadia interval factor of the level is 99.5, determine the length of the line AB.
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝑠1 = 𝑎1 − 𝑏1 = 1.330 − 1.020
𝒔𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟎 𝒎
𝑠2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1.972 − 1.736
𝒔𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒎
𝑑1 = 𝐾𝑠1 + 𝐶 = 99.5 0.310 + 0.30
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝒎
𝑑2 = 𝐾𝑠2 + 𝐶 = 99.5 0.236 + 0.30
𝒅𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟕𝟖𝟐 𝒎
𝐿𝑎𝑏 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 31.145 + 23.782
𝑳𝒂𝒃 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟗𝟐𝟕 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Problem 3
A dumpy level with an internal focusing telescope was set up on the left bank of a
river and the rod readings tabulated below were taken on a stadia rod held
successively at the left and right water edges. If the stadia interval factor of the
instrument is 100, determine the width of the river.

STADIA HAIR READINGS

ROD
POSITION UPPER MIDDLE LOWER
READING, a READING, c READING, b
Rod held
2.189 m 2.172 m 2.155 m
at LWE
Rod held
2.277 m 2.173 m 2.069 m
at RWE
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝑠1 = 𝑎1 − 𝑏1 = 2.189 − 2.155
𝒔𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 𝒎
𝑠2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 2.277 − 2.069
𝒔𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝒎
𝑑1 = 𝐾𝑠1 + 𝐶 = 100 0.034 + 0
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟒 𝒎
𝑑2 = 𝐾𝑠2 + 𝐶 = 100 0.208 + 0
𝒅𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖 𝒎
𝑊 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 = 20.8 − 3.4
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟒 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Inclined Stadia Sights
In actual field practice, most stadia measurements are inclined because of
varying topography, but the interval is still read on a vertically held rod. The inclined
measurement, which is also dependent on the observed vertical angle, is reduced to
horizontal and vertical components of the inclined line of sight.
where:
ID = inclined distance or slope distance
from the center of the instrument to
the horizontal cross hair reading at c
HD = horizontal distance between the
instrument and the rod
VD = vertical distance between the
telescope axis and the horizontal
cross hair reading at c
DE = difference in elevation between the
instrument station at A and the
distant stadia point at B
HI = height of instrument
RR = rod reading or middle stadia hair
reading
 TACHEOMETRY
Inclined Distance Formula:
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑲𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 + 𝑪
Horizontal Distance Formula:
𝑯𝑫 = (𝑲𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 + 𝑪) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
𝑯𝑫 = 𝑲𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜶 + 𝑪 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
Vertical Distance Formula:
𝑽𝑫 = (𝑲𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 + 𝑪) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝑽𝑫 = 𝑲𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜶 + 𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
Note:
Difference in Elevation: + 𝜶 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑫𝑬 = 𝑯𝑰 ± 𝑽𝑫 − 𝑹𝑹 − 𝜶 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
 TACHEOMETRY
Problem 4
The following data were obtained by stadia measurement: vertical angle = 18°23’, and
observed stadia intercept = 2.20 m. The stadia interval factor of the instrument used
is 95.5 and C = 0.30 m. If the height of instrument is 1.62 m, and the rod reading is
taken at 1.95 m, determine the following:
a. Horizontal stadia distance (HD) from the instrument set up at A to the rod held at
point B
b. Vertical stadia distance (VD) from the center of the instrument to the point on the
rod bisected by the horizontal cross hair.
c. Inclined or slope distance (ID) from the instrument center to the point on the rod
bisected by the horizontal cross hair.
d. Difference in elevation (DE) between the point over which the instrument is set
up and the point on which the rod was held.
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝑎. ) 𝐻𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 cos2 𝛼 + 𝐶 cos 𝛼
𝐻𝐷 = 95.5(2.20) cos 2 18°23′ + (0.30) cos 18°23′
𝑯𝑫 = 𝟏𝟖𝟗. 𝟒𝟖 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝑏. ) 𝑉𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 sin2 𝛼 + 𝐶 sin 𝛼
𝑉𝐷 = 95.5(2.20) sin2 18°23′ + (0.30) sin 18°23′
𝑽𝑫 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟗𝟕 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝑐. ) 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 cos 𝛼 + 𝐶
𝐼𝐷 = 95.5 2.20 cos 18°23′ + 0.30
𝑰𝑫 = 𝟏𝟗𝟗. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
Alternate Solution:
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐻𝐷 2 + 𝑉𝐷 2

𝐼𝐷 = 189.48 2 + 62.97 2

𝑰𝑫 = 𝟏𝟗𝟗. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝑑. ) 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐻𝐼 ± 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑅𝑅
𝐷𝐸 = 1.62 + 62.97 − 1.95
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Problem 5
The upper and lower stadia hair readings on a stadia rod held at station B were
observed as 3.50 m and 1.00 m, respectively, with the use of a transit with an
internal focusing telescope and having a stadia interval factor of 99.5. The height of
the instrument above A is 1.45 m and the rod reading is taken at 2.25 m. If the
vertical angle observed is -23°34’, determine the following:
a. Horizontal, vertical, and inclined stadia distances
b. Difference in elevation between the two stations
c. The elevation of station B, if the elevation of station A is 155.54 m above mean
sea level
 TACHEOMETRY

Solution:
𝑎. ) 𝑠 = 𝑎 − 𝑏
𝑠 = (3.50 − 1.00)
𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎
𝐻𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 cos2 𝛼 + 𝐶 cos 𝛼
𝐻𝐷 = 99.5(2.50) cos 2 23°34′ + (0.0) cos 23°34′
𝑯𝑫 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 sin2 𝛼 + 𝐶 sin 𝛼
𝑉𝐷 = 99.5(2.50) sin2 23°34′ + (0.0) sin 23°34′
𝑽𝑫 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 cos 𝛼 + 𝐶
𝐼𝐷 = 99.5 2.50 cos 23°34′ + 0.30
𝑰𝑫 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
Alternate Solution:
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐻𝐷 2 + 𝑉𝐷 2

𝐼𝐷 = 208.99 2 + 91.16 2

𝑰𝑫 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝑏. ) 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐻𝐼 ± 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑅𝑅
Note:
𝐷𝐸 = 1.45 − 91.16 − 2.25
Negative value of DE means that the vertical
𝑫𝑬 = −𝟗𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔. angle (α) is in depression.
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
Alternate Solution:
From the figure, it can be seen that DE + HI = VD + RR and
𝐷𝐸 = 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑅𝑅 − 𝐻𝐼
𝐷𝐸 = 91.16 + 2.25 − 1.45
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝑐. ) 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐵 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐴 − 𝐷𝐸
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝐵 = 155.54 − 91.96
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗. 𝑩 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟓𝟖 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Problem 6
A transit with a stadia interval factor of 100.8 was set at C on the line between
points A and B, and the following stadia readings were observed.

STADIA HAIR READINGS

ROD POSITION VERTICAL ANGLE
UPPER READING, a MIDDLE READING, c LOWER READING, b
Rod held at A + 15°35’ 1.330 m 1.175 m 1.022 m
Rod held at B - 8°08’ 1.972 m 1.854 m 1.736 m

If the stadia constant is 0.381 m, determine the following:

a. Length of line AB
b. Difference in elevation between points A and B
 TACHEOMETRY

Solution:
𝑎. ) 𝑠1 = 𝑎1 − 𝑏1
𝑠1 = (1.330 − 1.020)
𝒔𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟎 𝒎
𝑠2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
𝑠2 = (1.972 − 1.736)
𝒔𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒎
𝐻𝐷1 = 𝐾𝑠1 cos2 𝛼1 + 𝐶 cos 𝛼1
𝐻𝐷1 = 100.8(0.310) cos 2 15°35′ + (0.381) cos 15°35′
𝑯𝑫𝟏 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝐻𝐷1 = 𝐾𝑠1 cos2 𝛼1 + 𝐶 cos 𝛼1
𝐻𝐷1 = 100.8(0.310) cos 2 15°35′ + (0.381) cos 15°35′
𝑯𝑫𝟏 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝐻𝐷2 = 𝐾𝑠2 cos2 𝛼2 + 𝐶 cos 𝛼2
𝐻𝐷2 = 100.8(0.236) cos 2 8°08′ + (0.381) cos 8°08′
𝑯𝑫𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝟗 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
𝐿𝑎𝑏 = 𝐻𝐷1 + 𝐻𝐷2
𝐿𝑎𝑏 = 29.36 + 23.69
𝑳𝒂𝒃 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 TACHEOMETRY
Solution:
𝑏. ) 𝑉𝐷1 = 𝐾𝑠1 sin2 𝛼1 + 𝐶 sin 𝛼1
𝑉𝐷1 = 100.8(0.310) sin2 15°35′ + (0.381) sin 15°35′
𝑽𝑫𝟏 = 𝟖. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎
𝑉𝐷2 = 𝐾𝑠2 sin2 𝛼2 + 𝐶 sin 𝛼2
𝑉𝐷2 = 100.8(0.236) sin2 8°08′ + (0.381) sin 8°08′
𝑽𝑫𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟖 𝒎
From the figure, it can be seen that
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐷2 + 𝑉𝐷1 − 𝑅𝑅1
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 1.854 + 3.38 + 8.19 − 1.175
𝑫𝑬𝒂𝒃 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.