FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

▪ Introduction of Surveying ▪ Differential Leveling

▪ Profile Leveling
▪ Errors and Mistakes
▪ Tacheometry
▪ Measurement of Horizontal Distances
▪ Stadia Leveling
▪ Corrections in Taping
▪ Stadia Traverse
▪ Measurement of Angles and Directions
▪ Topographic Survey
▪ Traverse Computations
▪ Triangulation
▪ Area Computations
▪ Hydrographic Surveying
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

ERRORS - is defined as the difference between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a
calculation from the true value and is often beyond the control of the one
performing the operation.
MISTAKES - are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some
aspect of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with
carelessness, inattention, poor judgment, improper execution,
misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or indifference of the
surveyor.

A large mistake is referred to as blunders. Mistakes and Blunders are not

classified as errors because they usually are so large in magnitude when
compared to errors.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

TYPES OF ERRORS:
1. Systematic Errors.
This type of error is one which will always have the same sign and
magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. It also
referred to as cumulative error.
2. Accidental Errors.
These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence of such
errors are matters of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative in ,
and may tend in part to compensate or average out according to laws of
probability.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
SOURCES OF ERRORS:
1. Instrumental Errors. These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used,
either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between the
different parts prior to their use. Surveying instruments, just like any other
instrument, are never perfect; proper corrections and field methods are applied to
bring the measurements within certain allowable limits of precision. Examples of
instrumental errors are:
a. Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
b. Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
c. Determining the difference in elevations between two points with an
instrument whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
d. Sighting on a rod which is warped.
e. Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

SOURCES OF ERRORS:
2. Personal Errors. These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of
sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous
or inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from on individual to another and may
vary due to certain circumstances existing during measurement. Typical of these
errors are:
a. Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during
sighting.
b. Error in measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly on the target.
c. Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel
tape during measurement.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
SOURCES OF ERRORS:
3. Natural Errors. These errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature
such as changed in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth. Natural errors are beyond the control of man.
However, in order to keep the resulting errors within allowable limits, necessary
precautions can be taken. Common examples for natural errors are:
a. The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
b. Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
c. Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
d. Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a strong
wind.
e. Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to slope or uneven ground.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy
It indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute of true
value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related
measurements and their expectations.
Precision
It refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one
another of a set of repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of
observations is closely clustered together, the observations is said to have
been obtained with high precision.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

THEORY OF PROBABILITY
Probability
It is defined as the number of times something will probably occur
over the range of possible occurrences. Different theories of probability
are not only applicable to games of chance; they are also used in
scientific and engineering measurements such as in surveying.
Most Probable Value
From the theory of probability a basic assumption is that the Most
Probable Value (MPV) of a group of repeated measurements made
under similar conditions is the Arithmetic Mean or the Average.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

MOST PROBABLE VALUE FORMULA:

Σ𝑥 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = x̅ = =
𝑛 𝑛

where: mpv or x̅ - most probable value of the quantity measured

Σx – the sum of the individual measurements
n – the total number of observations made
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 1
A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance
between two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the
following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result from
accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.
Solution:
Σ𝑥 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥6
𝒎𝒑𝒗 𝒐𝒓x̅ = =
𝑛 𝑛
250.25 + 250.15 + 249.90 + 251.04 + 250.50 + 251.22
=
6
= 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒔.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 2
The angles about a point Q have the observed values. 130°15’20’’, 142°37’30’’, and
87°07’40’’. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Solution:
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 3
The observed interior angles of a triangle are A = 35°14’37’’, B = 96°30’09’’, and C =
48°15’05’’. Determine the discrepancy for the given observation and the most
probable value of each angle.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Solution:
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 4
Measurement of three horizontal angles (see accompanying figure) about a point P
are: APB = 12°31’50’’, BPC = 37°29’20’’, and CPD = 47°36’30’’. If the measurement of
the single angle APD is 97°37’00’’, determine the most probable values of the
angles.
ERRORS AND MISTAKES
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

Relative (Error) Precision

In surveying measurement, Relative Precision (RP) is the ratio of the
error to the measured quantity. It is used to define the degree of
refinement obtained. It is expressed by a fraction having the magnitude
of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity
in the denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the
same units, and the numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to
provide an easy comparison with other measurements.
For example, if for a particular measurement the probable error of the
mean is 0.18 m and the most probable value of the measurement is
235.50 m, the relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.18/235.5 or
3/3925, result as 1/1308 or around 1/1300.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

Residual
The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is
defined as the difference between any measurement any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value.
𝒗 = 𝒙 − x̅
where: v – the residual in any measurement
x – measurement made of a particular quantity
x̅ – most probable value of the quantity measured (mean)
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Probable Error
The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from
the most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50% chance that
the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.

Σ𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745
𝑛−1
Σ𝑣 2 𝑃𝐸𝑠
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745 =
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛
where: PEs – probable error of any single measurement of a series
PEm – probable error of the mean
Σv2 – summation of the squares of the residuals
n – number of observations
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Weighted Observations
It is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability under
similar conditions. Many surveying measurements are made under different
circumstances and conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability.
The assignment of relative weight to different measurements is usually based
upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements taken for a
particular quantity.
1. The weights are inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding errors.
2. The weights are also proportional to the number of observations.
3. Errors are directly proportional to the square roots of distances.
2 2
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾 𝑊1 𝐸2 𝑊1 𝐸3
𝑊1 = 2 ; 𝑊2 = ; 𝑊3 = ; 𝑊1 𝐸1 2 = 𝑊2 𝐸2 2 = 𝑊3 𝐸3 2 ; = 2 ; = 2
𝐸1 𝐸2 2 𝐸3 2 𝑊2 𝐸1 𝑊3 𝐸1
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Interrelationship of Errors
In some instances it is required to determine how the final result is affected to
when a computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two
commonly applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors
and the product of errors.
1. Summation of Errors

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ± 𝑃𝐸1 2 + 𝑃𝐸2 2 +𝑃𝐸3 2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸𝑛 2

where: Pes – probable error of the sum

PE1, PE2, etc. – probable error of each measurement
n – number of values added
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

2. Product of Errors

𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ± 𝑄1 × 𝑃𝐸2 2 + 𝑄2 × 𝑃𝐸1 2

where: Pep – probable error of the product

PE1 & PE2 – probable error corresponding to each quantity measured
Q1 & Q2 – measured quantities
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 5
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line:
1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the ff:
① Most probable value of the measured length.
② Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
③ Final expression for the most probable length

④ Relative precision of the measurement

Solution
①
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Solution
②
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Solution

④
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 6
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and
284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the
weighted mean.
Solution:
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 7
It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which has been
measured at different times by different observers with equal care. The values
observed were as follows: 74°39’45” (in two measurements), 74°39’27” (in four
measurements), and 74°39’35” (in six measurements).
Solution:
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 8
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different routes.
The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given below.
Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the point.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Solution:
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 9
The length of a line was measured repeated on three different occasions and the
probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:

1st Set of Measurements = 1201.50 + 0.20 m

2nd Set of Measurements = 1201.45 + 0.04 m
3rd Set of Measurements = 1201.62 + 0.05 m
Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of requirements.
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Solution:
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 10
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the following measurements
and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54 + 0.03 m, b = 234.26 + 0.05 m, and c =
195.70 + 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of
the perimeter.

Solution:
 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
Problem 11
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable
errors as follows: W = 253.36 + 0.06 m and L = 624.15 + 0.08 m. Determine the area
of the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculation.
Solution: