CIV 2264: ENGINEERING

SURVEYING II

By John Byarugaba
1
 Course outline
• Tacheometric surveying
• Definitions and Use, Principles of Stadia, Tacheometry Constants, Inclined sight
analysis ,Errors in Tacheometry, Applications.
• Control Surveying: Definitions Bearing analysis of closed/link traverse, Departures
and latitude of closed/link traverse, Departure and Latitude adjustment, Survey
station coordinates analysis, Plotting of a closed/link traverse.
• Curve Ranging: Road curves, types and their purpose, Simple circular curve,
Compound curve, Reverse curve, Vertical curve, Longitudinal and cross section
profile
• Photogrammetry surveying Introduction – terrestial and aerial photographs –
photo theodolite – applications – vertical and oblique photographs – height
determination contouring – photographic interpretations – stereoscopy
• Total station surveying and electromagnetic distance measurements EDM, Total
Station – Basic Concepts – Principles
• GPS Surveying: D efinitions and History, Components of GPS System, Working
principles, Application and use of GPS Technology.
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 COURSE DESCRIPTION
Tacheometric surveying :Definitions and Use, Principles of Stadia, Tacheometry
Constants, Inclined sight analysis ,Errors in Tacheometry, Applications.

Control Surveying: Definitions Bearing analysis of closed/link traverse, traverse

adjustment.

Curve Ranging: Road curves, types and their purpose, Simple circular curve,
Compound curve, Reverse curve, Vertical curve, Longitudinal and cross section profile

Photogrammetry surveying Introduction – terrestrial and aerial photographs – photo

theodolite – applications – vertical and oblique photographs – height determination
contouring – photographic interpretations – stereoscopy

Total station surveying and electromagnetic distance measurements EDM, Total

Station – Basic Concepts – Principles

GPS Surveying: Definitions and History, Components of GPS System, Working

principles, Application and use of GPS Technology.

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 INTRODUCTION
The term engineering surveying is a general expression for any
survey work carried out m connection with the construction, of
particular engineering features e.g. roads, railways, pipelines, dams,
power stations, air ports etc.. The main purposes of engineering
surveying include:
i. To produce up to date plans of the areas in which, engineering
projects are to be. ;
ii. To determine the necessary areas arid volumes of land and
materials that may be required during the construction.
iii.To ensure that the construction is built in its correct-relative-and
absolute position on ground. This is known as 'setting out'.
iv. To provide permanent control points from which particularly
important projects can be surveyed. This is common in
deformation surveys.
v. Monitoring to ensure, that the construction follows the original
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design. These are referred to as as-built surveys.
 INTRODUCTION(cont’d)
Like other branches of surveying, engineering surveys follow a step by step sequence
as follows:
a) Carry out reconnaissance.
b) Construct the points of interest.
c) Take field measurements of all the necessary angles, heights and distances.
Record all the information in a field book.
d) Calculate the positions of the control points or any other points of interest. The
computations should be checked wherever possible.
e) If a plan is to be produced, additional field measurements are taken to locate the
existing features in the area. This is known as detail surveying.
f) If the control points are to be used for setting out work, calculations are under
taken to obtain the relative angles and distances required to establish the exact
position of the engineering feature. Setting out is then undertaken.
g) Additional drawings may be produced from the field measurements if cross-
sections, longitudinal sections or other plan information is required. Further
calculations may be earned out to obtain area, volume or other information.

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 TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
• Tacheometry is a type surveying in which the horizontal and Vertical distances of
points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process
of measurements by tape or chain. Distances and heights are determined form
instrument readings onto a staff or a subtense bar.
• The requirement is that the assistant , who carries the staff, should be able to
reach the points surveyed and that a clear line of sight exists between the
instrument and the staff.
• In this method, fieldwork is very rapid and convenient compared to direct
distance measurement and levelling.
• It is best adapted in obstacles such as steep and broken terrain and where there
are obstacles such as rivers, stretches of water or swamp, crops etc., which make
chaining difficult or impossible.
• The method is primarily used for preparation of contoured maps or plans
requiring both the horizontal as well as Vertical control. Also, on surveys of
higher accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured with the tape.
• In recent past, due to falling prices and improvement in the capability of EDM
equipment, optical distance measurement (tacheometry) is tending to be
replaced by EDM equipment.
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 USES OF TACHEOMETRY
• The tacheometric methods of surveying are used with advantage
over the direct methods of measurement of horizontal distances
and differences in elevations. Some of the uses are:
– Preparation of topographic maps which require both
elevations and horizontal distances.
– Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods are
inconvenient.
– Detail filling
– Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.
– Checking of already measured distances
– Hydrographic surveys and
– Establishing secondary control.

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 INSTRUMENTS
• An ordinary transit theodolite/tacheometer fitted with a stadia
diaphragm is generally used for tacheometric survey.
• Stadia rod or levelling staff.
• The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above
and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross-hair,
the stadia hairs being mounted in the ring and on the same vertical
plane as the horizontal and vertical cross-hairs.

Different forms of stadia diaphragm commonly used

8
 SYSTEMS OF TACHEOMETRIC MEASUREMENT
• There are many systems of tacheometry but in each system the theodolite
measures a small angle, the parallactic angle, to a short baseline defined on a staff
held either horizontally or vertically.
• There are about four systems of tacheometry namely:
• Tangential system
• Stadia tacheometry
• Subtense bar tacheometry
• Optical wedge system

Parallactic angle Staff position Tachometric system

Variable Vertical Tangential
Fixed Vertical Stadia
Variable Horizontal Subtense bar
Fixed Horizontal Optical wedge
• The principle common to all the systems is to calculate the horizontal distance between
two points A and B and their distances in elevation, by observing
(i) The angle at the instrument at A subtended by a known short distance along a staff
kept at B, and 9
(ii) the vertical angle to B from A.
 STADIA TACHOMETRY
• This method uses a theodolite or a level with stadia line engraved in
their diaphragm to view a leveling staff. The parallactic angle is
kept fixed and is defined by short black line called hairs, marked on
the diaphragm of theodolite or level telescopes. The distance
between the stadia hairs is fixed and is called the stadia interval.

• The telescope used in stadia surveying are of three kinds:

(1) The simple external-focusing telescope
(2) the external-focusing anallactic telescope
(3) the internal-focusing telescope.
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 PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD (Vertical Staff Tacheometry)

v u
staff
Vertical axis of diaphragm A
f
b Objective lens

i C F . O C s

a
M
d
D B
• Consider the figure, in which O is the optical center of the objective of an external
focusing telescope.
• Let A, C, and B = the points cut by the three lines of sight corresponding to
three hairs. b, c, and a = top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.
• ab = i = interval b/w the stadia hairs (stadia interval)
• AB = s = staff intercept; f = focal length of the objective
• u = horizontal distance of the staff from the optical center of the objective
• v = horizontal distance of the cross-wires from O.
• d = distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O.
• D = horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instruments.
• M = centre of the instrument, corresponding to the vertical axis. 11
• Since the rays BOb and AOa pass through the optical center, they are straight so that AOB
and aOb are similar. Hence,
• u s we also know that 1 1 1
= = +
v i f u v
u
Multiplying throughout by fu, we get u= f+f
v
u s
Substituting the values of = in the above, we get
v i
s
u= f+f
i
Horizontal distance between the axis and the staff is D = u + d

f
D= s + (f + d) = K . s + C
i
• Above equation is known as the distance equation. In order to get the horizontal distance,
therefore, the staff intercept s is to be found by subtracting the staff readings
corresponding to the top and bottom stadia hairs.
• The constant k = f/i is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and the
constant (f + d) = C is known as the additive constant of the instrument.
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 PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD(cont’d)
• A telescope with the above property is called annallactic and the
constant K (e.g. 100) is known as the multiplying constant. C is
known as the additive constant.

• NB: Most theodolites and levels (modern Instruments) area

designed in such a way that K = 100. An annallactic lens is placed at
a fixed length from the objective in the telescope such that the
additive constant C = 0. This has an effect of simplifying the
formula to D = 100S.

• However, not all observations can be taken with the telescope

horizontal . In hilly terrain, inclined sights cannot be avoided and
more still the staff may be held either vertically or inclined (normal
to the line of sight). Therefore the basic formula should be
modified to cover such instances.
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 Inclined Sights: Distance and Elevation formulae for Staff held Vertical
Let P = Instrument station; Q = Staff station
A`Ө A
M = position of instruments axis; O = Optical center of the
C
objective

A, C, B = Points corresponding to the readings of the three hairs B m

B`

s = AB = Staff intercept; i = Stadia interval β V

Q
O
M Ө
L = Length MC measured along the line of sight
Q`
hi = height of the instrument; Δh
hi
m = central hair reading = CQ
P
Ө = Inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal D
D = MQ’ = Horizontal distance between the instrument and the staff

V = Vertical intercept at Q, between the line of sight and the horizontal line

β = angle between the two extreme rays corresponding to stadia hairs.

• Draw a line A’CB’ normal to the line of sight OC.

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• If the staff was normal to the line of collimation, readings A’CB’ would be read and the staff
intercept would be
• A’B’ = AB cos Ө = s cos Ө
• Since the line A’B’ is perpendicular to the line of sight OC, equation D = k s + C is directly
applicable. Hence, we have
MC = L = k . A’B’ + C = k s cosӨ + C
• The horizontal distance
D = L cosӨ = (k s cosӨ + C) cosӨ
D = k s cos2Ө + C cosӨ
Thus, D = k s cos2Ө for C = 0
• Similarly, V = L sin Ө = (k s cosӨ + C) sinӨ = k s cosӨ . sinӨ + C sinӨ
sin2Ө
V=ks
2
The mid hair reading , CQ = m
Thus the difference in levels between P and Q is :

 Elevation (Δh) = height of instrument + V – reading CQ

= hi + V – m
 Depression (Δh) = height of instrument - V – reading CQ
= hi - V – m 15
 Inclined sights with staff normal to the collimation axis

A
C
Ө
mcosӨ
B
β Q V
O Ө
M C`
Q`
hi

P L cosӨ msinӨ
D
Figure shows the case when the staff is held normal to the line of sight.
Case (a): Line of Sight at an angle of elevation Ө
Let AB = s = staff intercept; CQ = m = middle hair reading
we have MC = L = K s + C
The horizontal distance between P and Q is given by
D = MC’ + C’Q’ = L cosӨ + m sinӨ
= (k s + C) cosӨ + m sinӨ = KsCosӨ + m sinӨ
Similarly, V = L sinӨ = (k s + C) sinӨ = Ks sinӨ
And the elevation (Δh) = hi + V - mCos Ө
Case (b): Line of Sight at an angle of depression Ө

M Q’ C’
Ө
O
hi
V
P A

C1 C

B mcosӨ

Q
D
L cosӨ msinӨ

Figure shows the line of sight depressed downwards,

MC = L = k s + C
D = MQ’ = MC’ – Q’C’
= L cosӨ - m sinӨ
D = (k s + C) cosӨ - m sinӨ

V = L sinӨ = (k s + C) sinӨ

Elevation of Q = Elevation of P + hi – V – m cosӨ

 BOOKING OF TACHOMETRIC RESULTS
Stn. No. Stadia Horiz. Vert. S-U-L Horiz. Dist. Diff. in Ht Ht of Coords. Remarks
RL of Stn. Observations Angle Angle H=KS cos2θ point of point
Ht of instr.
Point No. L M U φ θ V=½ KSsin2θ N E

ERRORS IN VERTICAL STAFF TACHEOMETRY

The main sources of error in stadia tacheometry are divided into:
a) Instrumental errors b) Field errors

• Instrumental errors include:

i. An incorrectly assumed value of K, the multiplying constant.
ii. Errors arising from the assumption that modern instruments are anallactic.
• Field errors include:
i. Wrong staff readings and hence intercept.
ii. Non-verticality of staff .
iii. An error in reading the vertical circle/vertical angle. 18
 SUBTENSE BAR TACHOMETRY
• It is known that one of the principal sources of error in vertical staff
tachometry is refraction of the light rays from the staff. Holding the
staff horizontally can minimize the error. The rays then pass through
uniform atmospheric conditions. This principle is applied in subtense
tachometry.

• The method uses a horizontal bar of fixed length (2m), called a

subtense bar, positioned at one end of the line and a theodolite at the
other. The bar has targets at each end, which are precisely 2m apart.
The bar is largely made of steel but the targets are connected to an
invar wire in such a way as to compensate for temperature changes.

• The bar can be set horizontal using foot screws in conjunction with a
leveling bubble attached to the bar. In addition it can be set at right
angles to the line of sight by means of a small sighting device at its
center.
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 SUBTENSE BAR TACHOMETRY
Target Sighting device

Leveling head

Triod
Principle and procedure of subtense bar tachometry
Consider measuring a distance between two points A and B.
• Tripods are set at stations A and B, accurately centered and leveled using an
optical plummet.
• A T2 theodolite is set up at A and the subtense bar at B. The bar is set at right
angles to the line of sight.
• The parallactic angle is measured precisely several times – 8 times for second-
class work and 16 times for first class work.

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21
 CONTROL SURVEYING
• Control surveying - establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments
(control points) that serve as a reference framework for other survey projects.

• Methods of control surveying include:

i. Traversing
ii. Triangulation: This is where a network of single or overlapping triangles is
established; built up from the basic shapes of a simple triangle, braced
quadrilateral, or center point polygon. The vertices of the triangles represent
control points normally referred to as triangulation stations. Primarily all the
angles of the triangles are measured and at least one or more baselines also
measured.

iii. Trilateration: Just like in triangulation, a network of triangles is established but

instead of measuring angles, all the sides of the triangle are measured.
Precise measurement of long distances is by EDM. Using the measured
lengths of the triangle sides, angles can be derived by the cosine rule and
hence coordinates.
iv. Global Positioning system(GPS) 22
iv. Intersection: Intersection is a method of locating and
coordinating a point form at least two existing control points.
Horizontal angles are observed at the control points and the
coordinates of the unknown point derived using the solution of
triangles. The point to be coordinated occupied with the
instrument.

v. Resection: is a method where the point to be coordinated is

occupied. Horizontal angles are then observed from it to at least
three known (control) points. However arc should be taken to
make sure that the known points and the point to be coordinated
do not lie on circumference of the same circle.

vi. Global positioning system (GPS): a method of establishing

control by using receivers acquiring data from satellites.

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 TRAVERSING

• Refer to notes – Engineering Surveying I

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 CURVE RANGING
• In the design of roads and railways, straight sections of roads and tracks are
connected by curves of constant or varying radius. There are two types of curves:
a) Horizontal curves
b) Vertical curves

• The measurements in the design and construction of horizontal curves are

considered in a horizontal plane and those on the vertical curves are considered in
a vertical plane.
• The purpose of the curves is to deflect the road through an angle, θ ( referred to as
the deflection angle or angle of deviation) between the two straights.

HORIZONTAL CURVES
• There are two main types of horizontal curves:
i. Circular curves
ii. Transition curves

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 CIRCULAR CURVES
• These are curves of constant radius. Types of circular curves include:
a) Simple circular curves which consist of one arc of constant radius
b) Compound circular curves which consist of constant radius.
c) Compound circular curves consist of two or more curves of different radii.
d) Reverse circular curves which consist of two consecutive curves which may or
may not have the same radii, the centers of which lie on opposite sides of the
common tangent.

AB- common tangent

(b) Compound curve (c) Reverse curve

The minimum radius and the length of the curve chosen depend on such factors as:
i. The need to avoid unnecessary demolition
ii. The need to fit the curve into a restricted space
iii. The need to tie in to previous road construction.
iv. The curve design must also confirm with the set standards of the ministry of transport to
ensure that safety is maintained. 26
Important relationships and formulae for circular curves

27
 Relationships Calculating chainages of tangent points:
Refer to the figure on the geometry of a circular curve. If the
through chainage of the intersection point I is known, we can
calculate the chainages of the tangent points as follows:
Chainage of T = chainage of I – IT
Chainage of U = chainage of T + LC
Note :
The chainage of U is not equal to the chainage of I + IU

Consider two points X and Y along the length of curve TU. The following
relationships can be identified:
1. The tangential angle α, at T to any point, X, on the curve TU, is equal to half the
angle subtended at the center of curvature, O, by the chord from T to the point.
2. The tangential angle β, at any point, X, on the curve is equal to the half the angle
subtended at the center by the chord between two points.
3. The tangential angle to any point on the curve is equal to the sum of the
tangential angles form each chord up to the point i.e. ITY = ( α + β)
Through Chainage
• This is simply a distance and is usually in meters. It is a measure of the length
from the starting point of the scheme to the particular point in question. It is used
in road, railway, pipeline and tunnel construction as a means of referencing28any
point on the centerline.
DESIGN OF CIRCULAR CURVES

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 SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES
Using tangential angles method

In this method a theodolite and a tape are used. There is one major assumption made in this method i.e.
arc TX = chord TX if the chord ≤ R/20. in the figure above ;
Chord TX = Rx2α (α in radians)
Therefore α =(TX/2R) x (180/π) degrees
Similarly β = (XY/2R) x (180/π) degrees
In general α = 9180/2π) x (chord length /radius) degrees Or α = 1718.87 x (chord length /radius) minutes
Procedure :
1.Determine the total length of the curve.
2.Select a suitable chord length ≤ R/20. this will usually leave a sub-chord at the end and it sis necessary
to have an initial sub-chord in order to maintain equal chord lengths
3.Angles α are calculated corresponding to the various chord lengths using the formula derived above.
NB: In practice since all the chords except the first and the last will be equal, only three tangential angles
need to be calculated.
4.All the cumulative angles are measured from the tangent point T, with reference to the tangent line IT
and the corresponding chords are measured. 30
The results are normally tabulated before setting out the curve on site.
Example:
A circular curve of radius 900m is to connect two straights which deflect through
and angle of 3° 29' 24“. The through chainage of the intersection point is 1182.63m.
i. Calculate the through chainage of the two tangent points.
ii. Draw up a table listing the tangential angles and chord lengths required to set
out the curve from the entry tangent point if the pegs are required at exactly
20m multiples of the through chainage .
iii. Explain how you would set out the curve.

Question:
Two straights whose deflection is 13° 16' 00“ are to be connected by a circular curve
of radius 600m. Given that the through chainage of the intersection point is
2745.72m, and using a chord length of 25m, make the necessary calculations for
setting out the curve.

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SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES INVOLVING COORDINATES
• This is the method used. National grid or local co-ordinates of points on the curve
are calculated and these points are then fixed by either:
i. intersection (from two control points around the scheme) or
ii. bearing and distance (polar rays) method.

Procedure:
i. Locate T and U
ii. Obtain co-ordinates T and U ( by either intersection or traversing)
iii. Calculate the chord lengths TX, XY and YU and the respective tangential angles.
iv. Calculate the bearing TX, XY and hence the coordinates of points X and Y.
v. Set out points and hence the curve 32
 Advantages of using coordinates for setting out circular curves
1. The setting out can be done by anyone who is capable of using a theodolite. Curve
design knowledge is not essential.
2. The construction work can proceed undisturbed since there is no need to set
theodolite at the tangent points.
3. Any disturbed pegs can quickly be relocated from the traverse stations.
4. Each point on the curve is fixed independently hence chances of errors
accumulating from one point to the next are eliminated.
5. Key sections of the curve can be set out in isolation. E.g. a bridge centerline so that
work can progress in more than one area on the site.
6. Obstacles can be by – passed.
7. During construction it is necessary to relocate the centerline several times as the
various stages in the operation are reached. This is easily achieved using traverse
stations.

Disadvantages of using coordinates

1. There is very little check on the final setting out. Large errors will be noticed
when the curve does not take the required shape but small errors could pass
unnoticed.
2. Often long distances are involved in the polar rays method. If only tapes are
available, accurate measurement can be difficult to achieve. However, the
introduction of EDM has eased this problem. 33
 TRANSITIONAL CURVES
Unlike circular curves, transition curves have constantly changing radii. The radius of a
transition curve changes from infinity to a particular value ( minimum radius). The effect of
this is to gradually increase the radial force from zero to its highest value and thereby reduce
its effect.
Types of transition curves:
These are
a) Composite curves
b) Wholly transition curves.

• A composite curve where transitions of equal length are used on either side of a circular
curve of radius R. This type of curve, though widely used, has a disadvantage that the
radial force is constant on the circular section and if the force is large then the circular
section of the transitions curve becomes a danger zone.

34
• A wholly transition curve is a curve of constantly changing radius and hence constantly
changing force. In other wards, it’s the ideal transition curve. There is only a short length
over which the force is high; thus safety is increased.

Radial force and design speed

• A vehicle of ass M, travelling at a constant speed, V, along a curve of radius, r, is
experiencing a radial force, P, equal to MV2/R
• The mass of vehicle can be assumed constant and since routes are designed for particular
speeds, then it implies that V, is also constant. Therefore, pα1/r, implying that the smaller the
radius the greater the radial force.
• A vehicle leaving a straight section of road and entering a circular curve section of radius,
R, will experience a full force (MV2/R) instantaneously and if R is small the vehicle will skid
sideways, away from the center of curvature because they have the effect of introducing the
radial force gradually. 35
Super elevation:
• To minimize the effect of the radial force further, one side of the road or track should be raised relative
to the other. The difference in height between the road channels is known as super Elevation.

• By applying super elevation the resultant force can be made to act perpendicularly to the road surface
thereby forcing the vehicle down on the road rather than throwing it off.
• From the figure above, tan α = [MV2/ R]/Mg = V2/gR ,
• But also SE = B tan α = BV2/g R (Maximum), B is road width.
• Super elevation is constant on the circular curve section and is generally introduced on the entry
transition curve and gradually reduced on the exit transition curve. The department of transport has to
lay down rules governing the maximum and minimum values of super elevation E.g.
i. It should normally balance out only 45% of the radial force P.
ii. It should not be steeper than 7% ( 1 in 15)
• Therefore although the maximum theoretical SE = B V2/gR in practice the maximum allowable SE =
0.45 ( B V2/gR)
K – values: These are constants introduced by the department of transport in order to simplify
computation of the minimum length of vertical curve.
Min. Lv = KA meters, Where K is a constant obtained from the department of transport standards for a
particular road type and design speed. A is the algebraic different ingredients and the absolute value of A
36
is considered.
 VERTICAL CURVES
• Vertical curves are used to connect intersecting straight in the
vertical plane. Such straights are known as gradients.
• Gradients are usually expressed as percentages e.g. 1 in 50 or 20%
and wherever possible the desirable maximum values of gradients
should not exceed (i.e. 8%).
• Conventionally, gradients rising in the direction of increasing
chainage are considered to be positive and those falling are
considered to be negative.

• For design purposes , the algebraic difference (A) between the

gradients is also calculated. When (A) value is positive, that is
termed as crest or summit curve and it is a sag or valley curve for a
negative value.

Purpose of vertical curves:

i. Provide adequate visibility.
ii. To provide adequate passenger comfort and safety 37
Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in vertical curve calculations
i. Chord PWR = arc PSR = PQ + QR
ii. Length along tangents = horizontal length i.e. PQ = PQ
iii. QU = QW i.e. there is no difference in lengths measured either in the vertical plane or
perpendicular to the entry tangent length
Therefore, in general vertical curves are designed such that the two tangent lengths are equal.

Equation of the vertical curve

• In practice of parabolic curve is used to achieve a uniform rate of change of gradient and
therefore a uniform introduction of the vertical radial force. The equation of the curve is
thus of the form x = cy2; y being measured along the tangent length and x being an offset
to y.

Consider the figure above; 38

Consider the figure above;
Let QS = e and total length of the curve = Lv
Difference in level between P and Q = m/100) (Lv/2) =mLv/200
Difference in level between Q and R = (n/100). (Lv/2) = nLv/200
Hence;
difference in level between P and W = [mLv/200 – nLv/200]. ½ = (m –n)Lv/400
But form the properties of a parabola QS = QW/s = SW
Therefore QS = ½[mLv/200 – (m –n)Lv/400] =(m+n)Lv/800
(m + n) is the algebraic difference, A of the gradients.
Thus, QS = e = ALv/800 …………………………………………………….. (i)

At point Q on the curve ; y = Lv/2 and x = cy2

Hence e = c(Lv/2)2 ---------- c = e/(Lv/2)2 ……………………………….(ii)
Substituting equation (ii) in the equation of the parabola ( x = cy2) we get
X = ey2/(Lv/2)2
Substituting the value of e from equation (i) we get:
X = ( A y 2) / 200Lv.
39
 Setting out the vertical curve

i. Decide on the gradients of the curve and hence the length of Lv

ii. Plot the curve on a profile to check the design.
iii. Calculate the reduced levels of points along the proposed centerline i.e.
considering the figure above, if point P is the datum then the level of any point
Z on the curve with respect to P is given by ΔH where
ΔH = [ my/100 – ( A y2)/200 Lv]

– To get the reduced levels of points which lie a general distance, y from P along the vertical
curve, add or subtract ( depending on the sign ) the value of ΔH to the reduced level of P.

iv. The reduced levels of the points along the curve are then set out using sight rails.

40
 Summary of vertical curve design
i. Calculate A
ii. From current department of transport design standards , obtain the
appropriate K – value for the design speed and road type.
iii. Use the K – value to compute Lv( minimum length curve)
iv. Locate the entry and exit tangent points and determine their reduced
levels.
v. Use the formula for ΔH together with the reduced level of the entry
tangent point to calculate the reduced levels of points on the curve itself.
vi. The reduced levels of the points and hence the curve is plotted on the
longitudinal section and if acceptable it is set out using sight rails.

Example: Two straights AB and BC falling to the right at 1 in 10 and 1 in 20 respectively are to be
connected by a parabolic curve 200m long. Given that the chainage and reduced level of B are 3627.00m
and 84.64m resp., design the vertical curve.

41
 LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS
SECTION PROFILES

• Refer to notes – Engineering Surveying I

42
 PHOTOGRAMMETRY SURVEYING
Definition:
• “Photogrammetry is the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment through the processes of
recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of
electromagnetic radiant energy and other phenomena.” (ASPRS, 1980)
• “The science or art of obtaining reliable measurements by means of photographs.”
• The name “photogrammetry” is derived from the Greek words phos or phot which
means light, gramma which means letter or something drawn, metrein, the noun
of measure.

43
 DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Over time, the development of photogrammetry has passed through the following phases:
1. Analogue stereo plotter
2. Analytical photogrammetry
3. Digital photogrammetry

a) Analog Photogrammetry
• There was no automation involved in any modern sense. Measurement and
drafting were done manually. Classical analog stereo plotters were used which
have disappeared from the market and are not being manufactured anymore.
• Using optical, mechanical and electronical components, and where the images
are hardcopies. Re-creates a 3D model for measurements in 3D space.

44
 DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
b) Analytical Photogrammetry
• Many analytical techniques were developed and computer-aided- photogrammetry and
mapping were designed.
• In this period , generation of DEM and manual feature extraction was made possible.
• Perhaps the most important development in this period was the invention of the analytical
stereo plotter by Helava (1957). The analytical stereo plotter is essentially an instrument
with a built-in digital computer as its main component, which handles the physical and
mathematical relationship between object (ground) space and image space.
• 3D modelling is mathematical (not re-created) & measurements are made in the 2D images.
c) Digital Photogrammetry
• By digital photogrammetry, we mean input data are digital images or scanned photographs.
• A digital photogrammetric system should perform not only all the functionalities that as
analytical stereo plotter does, but should also automate some processes that are usually
performed by operators.
• Analytical solutions applied in digital images. Can also incorporate computer vision and
digital image processing techniques.
• or Softcopy Photogrammetry ”Softcopy” refers to the display of a digital image, as opposed
to a ”hardcopy” (a physical, tangible photo).
• Digital photogrammetric workstations were introduced . 45
 Distinct Areas

Metric Photogrammetry Interpretative Photogrammetry

• making precise measurements from Deals in recognizing and identifying
photos determine the relative locations objects and judging their significance
of points. through careful and systematic analysis.

• finding distances, angles, areas,

volumes, elevations, and sizes and
shapes of objects.
• Most common applications: Photographic Remote
1. preparation of planimetric and Interpretation Sensing
topographic maps (Includes use of multispectral
2. production of digital orthophotos cameras, infrared cameras,
thermal scanners, etc.)
3. Military intelligence such as
targeting

46
 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PROCEDURES
• Photogrammetry portrayed as systems approach. The input is usually referred to data
acquisition the “black box” involves photogrammetric procedures and instruments; the
output comprises photogrammetric products.
• Data acquisition in photogrammetry is concerned with obtaining reliable
information about the properties of surfaces and objects using a camera.

The remotely received information can be grouped into four categories:

1. Geometric information involves the spatial position and shape of objects. It is the most
important information source in photogrammetry.
2. Physical information refers to properties of EM radiation, e.g. radiant energy,
wavelength, and polarization.
3. Semantic information is related to the meaning of an image. It is usually obtained by
interpreting the recorded data.
4. Temporal information is related to the change of an object in time, usually obtained by
47
comparing several images which were recorded in different times/epochs.
 Photogrammetric Products
• Photogrammetric products fall into three categories: photographic products,
computational results, and maps.
a) Photographic Products: These are derivatives of single photographs or
composites of overlapping photographs. The figure below depicts the
typical case of photographs taken by an aerial camera. During the time of
exposure, a latent image is formed which is developed to a negative. At the
same time diapositives and paper prints are produced. Enlargements may
be quite useful for preliminary design or planning studies. A better
approximation to a map, are rectifications. A plane rectification involves
just tipping and tilting the diapositive so that it will be parallel to the
ground.

• Other major products are orthophotos and photo mosaics. Orthophotos are
aerial photograph modified so that its scale is uniform throughout.
• A mosaic is a planimetric map substitutes formed by piecing together two
or more individual overlapping photos to form a continuous composite
48
picture. A mosaic is an assembly of photos to form a continuous image.
b) Computational Results:
 Aerial triangulation is a very successful application of photogrammetry. It delivers 3-D
positions of points, measured on photographs, in a ground control coordinate system.
 Profiles and cross sections are typical products for highways design where earthwork
quantities are computed.
 The most popular form for representing portions of the Earth’s surface is the DEM/DTM
(Digital Elevation Model / Digital Terrain Model). Digital Elevation Maps (DEMs): an array
of points in an area that have X, Y and Z coordinates determined.

c) Maps: Maps are the most prominent product of photogrammetry. They are produced at
various scales and degrees of accuracies. Planimetric maps contain only the horizontal
position of ground features while topographic maps include elevation data, usually in the
form of contour lines and spot elevations. Thematic maps emphasize one particular feature
e.g., transportation network . Topographic maps: detailed and accurate graphic
representation of cultural and natural features on the ground.

49
Differences between Photographs and Maps
Photograph Map Task

Projection Central Orthogonal Transformation

About 0.5 Feature

Data Few KB
GB identification
and feature
Information Explicit Implicit
extraction

Purposes of photogrammetry
1. Mapping, for the production of Planimetric, topographical, and cadastral maps.
2. Military records: aerial photos can be used for military intelligence purposes.
3. Geology i.e. in the investigation of soils and rock formations, glaciers and general
geological information. Its use for this work is on the increase.
4. Forestry in the estimation of timber limits. To determine the value of forest areas
and in fire control.
5. Agriculture.
6. Planning e.g. for new highway routes, in town planning for development of parks
and civic movement.
7. Applied in medicine. To study the internal structure of living creatures using X-
50
ray images.
 Purposes of photogrammetry
8. To produce body profile.
9. To study the movement of certain parts of the body like the complicated
chewing muscles using images taken at different stages of motion.
10. Used in athletics, to reconstruct models of athletes at different distances for
purposes of assisting in decision making.
11. Used in Architecture to facilitate the determination of useful measurement of
objects (buildings) of complicated structures.
12. Applied in criminology, scenes of crimes and accidents are photographed and
measurements done in the office to avoid obstruction of traffic law.
13. Applied in Astronomy (space exploration), on telescoping photographs, it is
possible to get a relative position of stars and other heavenly bodies as well as
their distances from the earth.

There are mainly two types of photogrammetry

a) Aerial photogrammetry, One which deals with aerial photographs
b) Terrestrial and close-range photogrammetry; Utilizes ground or terrestrial
photographs.
Other types of photogrammetry include: Biostereometrics; Industrial
51
photogrammetry; Architectural photogrammetry , Space photogrammetry etc;
 TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial Terrestrial

Oblique

Vertical
Low oblique
(does not include horizon)

Truly Vertical
High oblique
(includes horizon)
Tilted
(1deg< angle < 3deg)

52
 BASIC PROBLEMS OF AN AERIAL SURVEY
a) Displacements. These include:
i. Tilt displacement: This is caused by the camera axis not being perpendicular or
horizontal. It can be adjusted by a process known as rectification.
ii. Height displacement: Caused by the difference in height of the objects that are being
photographed. Taking measurements in a stereoscopic model will eliminate these
displacements.
b) Distortions
i. Lens distortions; they are caused by the fact that the lens is not perfect and therefore
does not record the image in its true perspective positions. Aerial cameras are calibrated
so that the amount of distortions can be computed and rectified.
ii. Materials distortions; this is due to the materials that are used in the recording being
unstable.
Mapping camera : Is specifically designed for the production of photographs to be used in
surveying. There are 2 types,
a) Terrestrial cameras: -designed for use on the ground.
b) Aerial cameras: used in aircraft to take photographs from the air.
Common types of aerial cameras
i. Simple lens frame camera: The lens unit is a combination of several lens elements to
form a single piece. It is the most widely used in the world today. It provides highest
geometric picture quality. One photo is taken at a time.
ii. Multi lens frame cameras: This has 2 or more lens units and can take 2 or more photos 53
simultaneously. It application is only limited to special fields.
 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
• Vertical aerial photographs are taken along parallel passes called flight strips.
• Successive photographs along a flight strip overlap is called end lap – 60%
• Area of common coverage called stereoscopic overlap area and Overlapping
photos called a stereopair.
• Position of camera at each exposure is called the exposure station.
• Altitude of the camera at exposure time is called the flying height.
• Lateral overlapping of adjacent flight strips is called a side lap (usually 30%).
• Photographs of 2 or more sidelapping strips used to cover an area is referred to
as a block of photos.

54
 Stereoscopic Vision

Stereoscopic Viewers

55
 Photographic Scale

The scale of a near vertical

Photograph can be approximated by

Where S is the photograph scale, c

the calibrated focal length, and
the flying height above datum and h
refers to the average ground
elevation.

Flight height, flight altitude and scale

of aerial photograph.
56
57
 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
(EDM)
• EDM is the electronic distance measuring device, measures the distance from the
instrument to its target. The EDM sends out an laser or infrared beam which is
reflected back to the unit, and the unit uses velocity measurements to calculate
the distance traveled by the beam.
History:
• Prior to the total station, Theodolite with EDMs and data collectors were used to
record large numbers of points, and for measuring long distances.
• The systems were heavy, prone to failure, and many times the parts incompatible.
• Prior to these systems, optical (stadia) and manual (tape) systems were used to
measure distances.
• First introduced in the late 1950’s
• At first they were complicated, large, heavy, and suited primarily for long
distances
• Current EDM’s use either infrared (light waves) or microwaves (radio waves)
• Microwaves require transmitters/receivers at both ends
• Infrared use a transmitter at one end and a reflecting prism at the other and are
58
generally used more frequently.
 BACKGROUND
• Rapid development of EDM is linked with the development of electronics during
the last century.
• The advent of EDM equipment has completely revolutionized all surveying
procedures, resulting in a change in all surveying procedures and techniques.
Consequently, taping distance has been rendered obsolete for all base-line
measurements.
• EDM allows distances to be measured easily, quickly and with great accuracy,
regardless of terrain conditions.
• Modern EDM equipment contain algorithm for reducing slope distance to its
horizontal and vertical equivalent.
• Standard EDM based distance measurement takes 1.5 to 3 secs. Automatic
repeated measurement can be sued to improve reliability in difficult atmospheric
conditions.
• Latest developments in EDM equipment provide capability of recording many
thousand blocks of data for direct transfer to the computer allowing for electronic
booking and even computerized data processing and plotting.
• Today there is practically no surveying operation which does not utilize the speed,
economy, accuracy and reliability of modern EDM equipment.
• EDM is very useful in measuring distances that are difficult to access or59 long
distances.
EDM Properties
• They come in long (10-20 km), medium (3-10 km), and short range (.5-3 km). Range
limits up to 50 km
• They are typically mounted on top of a theodolite, but can be mounted directly to a
tribrach.
EDMs and Total Station
• First step was to add an EDM to the theodolite .
• Second step was to interface electronic data logger.
• Next step all one unit (total station).
• Latest development total station and GPS combined.
EDM Classifications
 Described by form of electromagnetic energy.

– First instruments were primarily microwave (1947)

– Present EDMs are some form of light, i.e. laser or near-infrared lights.

 Described by range of operation.

– Generally microwave are 30 - 50 km range. Developed in the early 70’s, and

were used for control surveys. (medium)
– Light EDM’s generally 3 - 5 km range. (short) .Used in engineering and
60
construction
 Principles of EDM
• Operation: A wave is transmitted and the returning wave is
measured to find the distance traveled.

• Electromagnetic energy travels based on following relation:

• c- velocity of EM signal in a vacuum , n- refractive index of atmosphere

• Distances AB is determined by calculating the number of wavelengths traveled.
Distance, D = Nλ/2 + (ΔΦ/2π) λ /2
N- is an integer , λ-wavelength, ΔΦ – phase difference
61
 EDM Measurement Principles
• There are basically three methods of measurement employed:
a) Pulse method: A short intense pulse of radiation is transmitted to the reflector target
which immediately transmits it back along a parallel path to the receiver.
EDM
Reflector

Returned signal

A
B

• The measured distance is computed from the velocity of the signal multiplied by the time
it took to complete its journey.
D = cΔt/2, Distance AB, c-velocity of pulse and flight time of pulse
• This method is rarely use d in practice since most EDM instruments do not measure flight
time. Some applications of this method include laser ranging , satellite radar altimetry.
b) Phase Difference method: The majority of EDM instruments , whether infra-red, light or
microwave use this form of measurement. In this method, the phase difference between the
outgoing and incoming signal is measured.
The fundamental equation is , D = Nλ/2 + (ΔΦ/2π) λ /2
c) Interferometry: Used for precision distance measurement over short distances.
They are based on the principle of optical interference.
62
 Errors Influencing EDM Measurements
• Many different sources of systematic errors can affect EDM measurements
including those caused by the instrument operator, the atmosphere and
instrument mal adjustment.
a) Instrument errors: these include
i. Additive/Zero error: It is result of the internal measuring center of the
instrument/reflector not coinciding with the physical center of the
instrument/reflector which is plumbed over the measuring mark.
ii. Cyclic error (varies with distance).
iii. Scale errors (proportional to distance).
b) Instrument operator errors
i. Precise centering
ii. Pointing
iii. Setting automatic values
c) Atmospheric errors
i. Errors in the determination of the velocity of light
ii. Modulation frequency errors
iii. Refractive index error
63
iv. Errors in phase difference determination
 TOTAL STATION SURVEYING
• A total station is a combination electronic
theodolite and electronic distance measuring
device (EDM).
• With this device, as with a theodolite and tape,
one may determine angles and distances from the
instrument to points to be surveyed.
• A total station is a survey instrument that can
measure horizontal and vertical angles, slope, and
horizontal and vertical distances.
• With the aid of trigonometry, the angles and
distances may be used to calculate the co-
ordinates (x, y, and z or northing, easting and
elevation) of surveyed points in absolute terms.
• The total station works by firing an infrared laser
beam at a reflector mounted on a stadia rod. The
distance between the total station and the
reflector is calculated based on the time taken for
the beam to reflect back to the total station. 64
• It is Process of determining
earthen features and recording
its relative position on to the
paper

65
• Total station is a combination of:EDM, Theodolite, Auto Leveler, Microprocessor
with specific memory ,Battery/spare which works about 5 working hours .
• About 100 models were released till now by different firms.

Basic components of Total station:

• Prism reflector: It is a combination of ranging rod, staff and optical cuboidal
mirror.
• GUN: data screen LCD, eye piece, telescope, environmental box, microprocessor
with memory card of 1 or 2 GB capacity (1MB can store 800 points).
• Tripod: with different material i.e. aluminum or wood.
• Optical and Laser plumb bobs.
• Battery –as an external attachment
ACCURACY OF TOTAL STATION
More accuracy can be achieve by :
– 1. Careful Centering
– 2. Accurate pointing target
– 3. Average of multiple points
1. Angular accuracy is from 1 to 20 Sec.
– 4. Better optical lens 2. Linear accuracy is from 2mm to 10mm/per KM
– 5. Strong Tripod 3. Different instruments have different accuracy e.g.
Nikon, Siokkia, Leica, etc
– 6. Verticality of prism pole 66
 Functions of T.S:
i. It simultaneously measures angles & distances and Record
ii. Correcting the measured distance with: Prism constant, Atmospheric
Parameters, Temperature, Curvature of earth and Refraction correction
iii. Computing the point elevation
iv. Computing the coordinates of every point
v. Remote elevation measurement
vi. Remote distance measurement
vii. Area calculations
viii. Data Transferring facility from instrument to S/W and S/W to instrument
ix. Format of conversion of units

Operations involved while using Total Stations

1. Establishing the site Datum i.e. Selecting the site Datum and Establishing North.
2. Setting up the Total station i.e. set, center, level and preparing data collector.
3. Data collector options and setting (Main menu and Basic settings).
4. Creating and Operating Job files: Creating a new Job file or Opening an existing file.
5. Collecting data points(Identifying the important points, Noting the special features,etc).
6. Post Processing – Data down loading, conversion.
7. Plotting/Map generation
67
RDM
Remote Distance Measurement
 Application and Limitations of Total station

Limitations
1. It is not a Rugged instrument (Sensitive).
2. Prism verticality is questionable.
3. Visibility is must. reflector
4. More Expensive.
5. Requires calibration at every six months.
6. Amount of error is greater at short distances.
7. Height of instrument and prism is to fed.
8. Awareness on battery maintenance.
9. To establish north- compass is required.
Applications
i. updating mapping
ii. Topographic survey
iii. Hydrographic survey
iv. Cadastral survey and other control surveys
v. Project construction survey
vi. Road,
vii. Rail Survey
viii. Mining survey
• GPS = Global Positioning System (uses satellites)
• GPS has significantly changed surveying,
navigation, shipping, airline, transportation
• GPS has become the most common method for
field data collection in GIS

70