LSVTE302: SURVEYING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION

 It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of

measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.

Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are thus
determined from the data of the survey.

The main surveying instruments in use around the world are the theodolite and steel
band, the total station, the level and rod and surveying GPS systems. Most instruments
screw onto a tripod when in use. Tape measures are often used for measurement of
smaller distances. 3D scanners and various forms of aerial imagery are also used.
The surveying may be used for following purposes

• To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages,
towns etc.

• To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and
other properties..

• To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

i) PLANE SURVEYING

The earth surface is considered as plain Surface.

The Curvature of the earth is ignored

Line joining any two stations is considered to be straight

The triangle formed by any three points is considered as plain

The angles of triangle are considered as plain angles

Carried out for a small area < 250 km2

USES:

 Plane Surveys which generally include the area upto 260km2 are carried out for
engineering projects, on large scales to determine relative positions of individual
features on the earths surface.

 Plane Surveys are used to prepare the layout for highways, canals, railways,
construction of various features etc.

ii) GEODETIC SURVEYING

The earth surface is considered as Curved Surface.

The curvature of earth is taken into account.

The line joining any two stations is considered as spherical

The Triangle formed by any three points is considered as spherical.

The angles of the triangle are considered as spherical angles.

Carried out for a small area > 250 km2

USES:

 Geodetic Surveys carried out with higher degree of accuracy to provide the spaced
control points on the earth surface.

 It Requires advanced instruments

Fundamental Principles of Surveying

Two basic principles of surveying are:

• Always work from whole to the part,

According to the first principle, the whole survey area is first enclosed by main stations
(i.e.. Control stations) and main survey lines. The area is then divided into a number of
divisions by forming well conditioned triangles.
and

• To locate a new station by at least two measurements ( Linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

 According to the second principle the points are located by linear or angular
measurement or by both in surveying. If two control points are established first,
then a new station can be located by linear measurement. Let A & B are control
points, a new point C can be established.
 Following are the methods of locating point C from such reference points A &B.

LO1. Identify distance measuring tools and instruments.

1.1. Surveying tools used in distance measurement

Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all surveying

observations.
Horizontal and Slope Distances

• Horizontal distance between two points is the horizontal length between plumb lines at
the points.

• Slope distance is the inclined length between the two points.

Methods of Measuring Distances

Taping Equipments

 Tape
 Range rod

Use:

The process of locating number of points on along the survey line is called Ranging
or Ranging out.

Ranging rod are required generally in the case where the length of the chain or the
tape is small as compared to distance between two station.

 Arrows
Arrows are used to mark the position of the end of the chain or tape on the ground.

 Clinometer

Use: A Clinometer are used to measure angle of the slope of the ground.

Use:

 Peg

Pegs are used to mark the survey stations and end point on the survey line on ground.
  Plumb bob

In surveying plumb bob is mainly used for centering the instrument.

 Chain

Use: Chain is surveying instrument used for measuring the distance.

Taping procedures

 Tape must always be straight

 Tape must not be twisted
 Use chaining arrows for intermediate points
 Tape horizontally if possible
 Tape on the ground if possible
 Slope taping needs to be reduced
 Catenary taping requires correction

Following are different surveying equipment and their uses

No. Instrument Uses

1. Measuring tape To measure linear distances

2. Chain To measure linear distances with precision

3. Arrow To mark a single chain distance

To fix points on the ground To mark the terminal points of survey lines
4. Peg
the ground

To mark the position of stations To sight the stations To range straight

5. Ranging rods
lines

6. Plumb bob To establish a vertical line

7. Cross Staff To set out a right angle from a survey line

8. Optical Staff To set out a right angle from a survey line

9. Prism Square To set out a right angle from a survey line

10. Site Square To set out a right angle from a survey line

Prismatic
11. To find the bearing of traversing To find included angles
Compass

Surveyor’s To find a bearing and angles between two survey lines in a traverse
12.
Compass
LO2. Identify leveling tools and instrument
INTRODUCTION

Engineering surveying involves the measurement of three quantities; heights, angles

and distances.

What is levelling?

Levelling is the process by which elevations of points or differences in elevation are

determined

The level is an instrument with a telescope and bubble tube which is used for
measuring differences in elevation between various points.

There are three basic types of level instruments, namely:

1. Dumpy Levels
2. Engineers’
3. Tilting Levels
4. Automatic Levels

A levelling staff is needed to measure vertical distances and an instrument known as

a level is required to define the horizontal plane.

The staff must be held vertically – a circular bubble is sometimes fitted to help this.
Automatic Level

1. Focusing screw 2.
2. Eyepiece
3. 3. Foot screw
4. 6. Tangent screw
5. 7. Circular bubble
4. Horizontal circle

5. Base plate

8. Collimator (sight)

9. Object lens

Telescope parts

1. Object lens

2. Focusing screw

3. Focusing lens

4. Diaphragm

5. Eyepiece
TRIPOD

Levelling involves measuring vertical distances with reference to a horizontal plane or

surface.

Areas of Application

♦ Design of highways, railroads, canals, etc.

♦ Layout construction projects according to specific design

♦ Calculate earthwork volumes

♦ Investigate drainage characteristics

♦ Develop maps showing general ground configurations

LEVELLING TERMS AND THEIR DEFINITION

Definitions

Backsight (BS): This is the first reading taken by the observer at every instrument
station after setting up the level.

Foresight (FS): This is the last reading taken at every instrument station before
moving the level.

Intermediate Sight (IS): This is any reading taken at an instrument station between
the backsight and the foresight.

Turning point (TP): This point at which both a foresight and a back sight are taken
before moving the staff.

The main features of the telescope

The object lens, focusing lens, diaphragm and eye piece are all mounted on an optical
axis called the line of collimation or the line of sight.

This is an imaginary line which joins the optical centre of the object lens to the centre of
the cross hairs

When looking through the eye piece of the surveying telescope, a set of lines called the
cross hairs can be seen. These are used for taking measurements from the staff. These
cross hairs are etched on a small sheet of glass known as the diaphragm.

Parallax

Parallax occurs when the focusing screw and the eyepiece is done incorrectly. This
condition can be detected by moving the eye to different parts of the eyepiece when
reading the staff.
When a Surveyor operates leveling instruments (levels) to perform the leveling
activities, the following steps are considered.

Setting up: is to stand/fix the tripod and instrument over Benchmark (BM) or any
other selected surveying point

Centering: means to make sure that your instrument is true vertical over the
Benchmark (BM) or any other selected surveying point.

Leveling up: is to centralize the circular level bubble. Removal of parallax: by

focusing eyepiece and objective.

Focusing eyepiece: for making visible the cross-hairs.

Focusing objective: to make visible the image, object, reflector, staff reading, and
prism.
LO3.IDENTIFY ANGULAR MEASURING TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS

3.1. Tools used in angular measurement

INTRODUCTION

Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently depends on the
observation of angles and directions.

An angle is the difference in direction between two (2) intersecting lines or convergent
lines.
Angle is simply figure formed by the intersection of two lines or figures generated by
the rotation of a line about a point from an initial position to a terminal position. The
point of rotation is called the vertex of the angle.

Angles measured in surveying are classified as either horizontal or vertical,

depending on the plane in which they are observed.

A horizontal angle is formed by the directions to two objects in a horizontal plane.

Horizontal angles are used to determine bearings and directions in control surveys,
for locating detail when mapping and for setting out all types of structure.
An azimuth is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a defined reference
(typically geodetic north).

Kinds of horizontal angle

The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly observed in surveying are

1) Interior angles: on the inside of a closed polygon, they can be angles to the right
or to the left.
2) Exterior angles are on the outside of a closed polygon, they can be angles to the
right or to the left.
3) Deflection angles: Measured clockwise (R), or counterclockwise (L) from an
extension of the back line to the forward station. Magnitudes are from 0 o to 180o
preceded by R or L letters.
Vertical angles are measured in the vertical plane either above or below the horizontal
plane of the instrument.
A vertical angle is formed by two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one of these
lines horizontal. Vertical angles are used when determining the heights of points and to
calculate slope corrections.

Vertical angles are used in trigonometric leveling, stadia and for reducing slope
distances to horizontal.

Zenith angles, used as a reference for measuring vertical angles, are defined as 0°
directly overhead and 90° at the horizontal plane.

A zenith angle is the complementary angle to the vertical angle and is formed by two
intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one of these lines directed toward the zenith.
Angles & Directions

Three (3) basic requirements determining an angle are:

(a) Reference or starting line,

(b) Direction of turning, and
(c) Angular distance (value of the angle).
 Tools for measurements of angles

Protractor

It is a piece of simple angular measuring equipment used for measurement of angles

from zero degrees to 180 degrees with an accuracy of + or -0.5 degree.

 Compass

 Sextant.
Instruments for measurements of angles
Angle instruments called tacheometers or theodolites, depending on their precision in
measuring angles

What is Theodolite?

A Theodolite is a measuring instrument used to measure the horizontal and vertical

angles are determined with great precision. Theodolite is more precise than magnetic
compass. Magnetic compass measures the angle up to as accuracy of 30’. Anyhow a
vernier theodolite measures the angles up to and accuracy of 10’’, 20”.

It is of either transit or non-transit type. In Transit theodolites the telescope can rotate
in a complete circle in the vertical plane while Non-transit theodolites are those in which
the telescope can rotate only in a semicircle in the vertical plane.

The Theodolite is a most accurate surveying instrument mainly used for: (Uses of
theodolite)

 Measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

 Locating points on a line.
 Prolonging survey lines.
 Finding difference of level.
 Establishing grades.
  Setting out curves.
 Measure height & depths.
 Measure distance.
 Alignment of various civil works.
 Measure slope. & etc

CLASSIFICATION OF THEODOLITES

Theodolites may be classified as;

A. Based on movement of telescope:

 Transit Theodolite
 Non Transit Theodolite

Transit Theodolite

• The telescope can be transited i.e. revolved through a complete revolution (180○ ) about
its horizontal axis in the vertical plane.

• The position of theodolite can be changed from face left to face right

• Deflection angles can be measured easily.

• These are widely used in surveying.

Non-Transit type

• The telescope cannot be transited.

• The position of theodolite cannot be changed from face left to face right.

• Deflection angles cannot be measured easily.

• These are now become obsolete

B. Based on arrangement to measure angles:

 Vernier Theodolite
 Micrometer Theodolite
 Electronic Theodolite

Vernier Theodolite: For reading the graduated circle if Vernier are used, the
theodolite is called as a Vernier Theodolite. It can measure an angle up-to 20”. This
theodolites are commonly used.
Micrometer Theodolite: If Micrometer is provided to read the graduated circle then
it is called as a Micrometer Theodolite. It can measure an angle up-to 1”.

Electronic Theodolite: In Electronic Theodolite, the readings of angle is obtained in

digital form. When EDM instrument is attached with Electronic Theodolite it becomes
Total Station.

FUNDAMENTAL AXES OF THEODOLITE & THEIR RELATIONSHIP

V - Vertical axis
S – Sight axis, collimation axis
H – Horizontal axis (telescope rotary axis )

TERMS USED IN TRANSIT VERNIER THEODOLITE

1. Centering: Centering means setting the theodolite exactly over an instrument

station so that its vertical axis lies immediately above the station mark.

2. Transiting: Transiting is also known as plunging or reversing. It is the process of

turning the telescope about its horizontal axis through 1800 in the vertical plane.
3. Swinging the telescope: It means turning the telescope about its vertical axis in
the horizontal plane. A swing is called right or left according as the telescope is rotated
clockwise or counter clockwise.

4. Face Left: If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left side of the observer
while taking a reading , the position is called the face left; and the observation taken on
the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known as the face left observation.

5. Face Right: If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right side of the observer
while taking a reading ,the position is called the face right; and the observation taken on
the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known as the face right observation.

6. Changing Face: It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the
observer ,if originally it is to the left , and vice – versa.

7. Axis of the Level Tube / Bubble Line: It is a straight line tangential to the
longitudinal curve of the level tube at the center of the tube. It is horizontal when the
bubble is in the center.

8. Vertical Axis: It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the
horizontal plane.

9. Horizontal Axis / Trunnion Axis: It is the axis about which the telescope can be
rotated in the vertical plane.

10. Line of Collimation (LOC) / Line Of Sight (LOS): It is an imaginary line

joining the intersection of the cross- hairs of the diaphragm to the optical center of the
object- glass and its continuation.

11. Axis of The Telescope: It is also known an imaginary line joining the optical
center of the object- glass to the center of eye piece.
ADJUSTMENT OF A THEODOLITE

The adjustments of a theodolite are of two kinds :

1. Permanent Adjustments.

2. Temporary Adjustments.

1) Permanent adjustments:

The permanent adjustments are made to establish the relationship between the
fundamental lines of the theodolite and , once made , they last for a long time. They are
essential for the accuracy of observations.

The permanent adjustments in case of a transit theodolites are :-

 Adjustment of Horizontal Plate Levels. The axis of the plate levels must be
perpendicular to the vertical axis.
 Horizontal axis adjustment. The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the
vertical axis.
 Collimation Adjustment. The line of collimation should coincide with the axis of
the telescope and the axis of the objective slide and should be at right angles to
the horizontal axis.
 Adjustment of Telescope Level or the Altitude Level Plate Levels. The axis of the
telescope levels or the altitude level must be parallel to the line of collimation.
 Vertical Circle Index Adjustment. The vertical circle vernier must read zero
when the line of collimation is horizontal.

2) Temporary Adjustment

The temporary adjustments are made at each set up of the instrument before we start
taking observations with the instrument. There are three temporary adjustments of a
theodolite:-

1. Setting up and Centering

2. Levelling
 3. Elimination of parallax

Setting up

The setting operation consists of fixing the theodolite with the tripod stand along with
approximate leveling and centring over the station.

Centring

The operation involved in placing the vertical axis of the instrument exactly over the
station mark is known as centring.

Leveling

Leveling of an instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly
vertical. Generally, there are three leveling screws

Focusing

To obtain the clear reading, the image formed by the objective lens should fall in the
plane of diaphragm and the focus of eye-piece should also be at the plane of
diaphragm. This is being carried out by removing parallax by proper focusing of
objective and eye-piece. Thus, focusing operation involves two steps.

Focusing of Eye-piece

The eye-piece is focused to make the appearence of cross hairs distinct and clear.

Focusing of Objective

It is done for each independent observation to bring the image of the object in the
plane of cross hairs
Axes of Theodolite

Units of angle measurement

A purely arbitrary unit defines the value of an angle. The sexagesimal system used in the
United States, and many other countries, is based on degrees, minutes, and seconds. In
Europe the grad or gon is commonly used. Radians may be more suitable in computer
computations, but the sexagesimal system continues to be used in most U.S. surveys.

LO4.Identify coordinates recording and tracking instrument

1.1. Types of surveying instruments used in coordinate tracking

 Satellite-based instrument (GNSS, radar),

 Ground-based instrument (Total station, laser scanner etc.)

 Aerial base instrument (Drones, etc.)

1.2. Description of satellite-based coordinate tracking instrument

GNSS

A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is made up a network of satellite that

transmits ranging signals used for positioning and navigation anywhere around the
globe as well as air or sea.

Example of such satellite system includes:

NAVASTAR Global positioning system (GPS)-US

Global navigation satellite system (GLONASS)-Russia

GALILEO System-European

COMPASS (Beidu''big dipper'') -CHINA

IRNSS-Indian

All these system combined are now referred to as Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

GNSS COMPONENTS

The GNSS consist of three main satellite technologies: GPS, GLONASS and Galileo.

Each of them consists mainly of three segment

a) Space segment
b) Control segment
c) User segmentA

As of today, the complete satellite technology is the GPS Technology and most of the existing
worldwide applications are related to the GPS technology.

GLOBAL POSITIONNING SYSTEM

The navigation satellite timing and ranging (NAVASTAR) Global positioning system (GPS) was
developed by the United states department of defense (Do D) to provide worldwide positioning
and timing capabilities of the military.

Different component of the GPS System fall into three main groups:

Space segment: Space segment consist of 24 operational satellites. The satellites are also placed
in equal number in six orbital planes each inclined at 550 from the earth’s equator.
The control Segment: The second major component of the GPS is the control segment. This
currently consists of eleven monitoring stations where each station monitors and accumulates the
range of each visible satellite.

User segment: The third component of the GPS System is the user segment. This consists of
GPS antennas and receivers that provide position, navigation and timing information to the users.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides
location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.

A GPS navigation device, GPS receiver, or simply handheld GPS is a device that is capable of
receiving information from GPS satellites and then to calculate the device's geographical
position. Using suitable software, the device may display the position on a map, and it may offer
directions. The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses a global navigation satellite system
(GNSS) made up of a network of a minimum of 24, but currently 30, satellites placed into orbit
by the U.S. Department of Defense.

The GPS User Segment- Application

1. Land, sea and Air navigation and tracking

2. Surveying and Mapping on land at sea and from the air.
3. Military application
4. Recreation user on land at sea and in the air,

GPS User Equipment

In this context ,GPS equipment refers to be combination of :

1. Hard ware
2. Soft ware
3. Operation procedures or requirement

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is used to perform the following activities:

 Collect and store points (waypoints)

 Indicate a single position including field corners, insect infestation areas, crop damage,
individual trees, trail heads, creek crossings, point source pollution, etc.
 Download points onto your computer and integrate with other data
 Collect and store lines or tracks
 Calculate distance (perimeter of a field, e.g.)
 May represent a road, stream, or path  Save and download tracks onto your computer 
Etc….

The figure below is illustrating the parts of Global Positioning System

 Schematic representation of GPS parts (front side).

Schematic representation of GPS parts (back side).

The operation steps are varying depending on the manufacturer mark of

instrument. The following are operations steps of GPS – GARMIN Etrex 20:
 GPS Settings

 GPS switch on
 Set up - Enter
 Position Format – Enter
 User Grid – Enter
 User Grid – Enter
 UTM – Enter
 False Easting: 500,000
 False Northing: 5,000,000
 Scale factor: 0.9999
 Central Meridian (Longitude origin): E 0300
 Latitude origin: 0

 How to check handheld GPS satellites before locating features?

 GPS switch on
 Enter
 Wait 4 or more satellites
 Check accuracy: 3m

 Location of features using handheld GPS

 GPS switch on
 Mark waypoint – Enter
 Rename the marked point
 Done/Save

 How to found the taken points?

 GPS switch on
 Waypoint manager - Enter
 Select desired point (s) - Enter
 Record coordinates (X, Y, Z)

 How to get area of plot of land with handheld GPS

 GPS switch on
 Area calculation – Enter
 Start – Enter
 Walk around perimeter of area you want to calculate
 When finished, select calculate to see the area inside the path you walked
A total station

A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying and

building construction. The total station is an electronic theodolite (transit) integrated
with an electronic distance meter (EDM) to read slope distances from the instrument
to a particular point and software running on an external computer known as a data
collector.

Total station surveying - defined as the use of electronic survey equipment used to
perform horizontal and vertical measurements in reference to a grid system

Components of a Total Station

 EDM
 Electronic theodolite
 On-Board Micro
 Processor
 Data Collector (built in or separate unit)
 Data Storage (internal or memory card) Prisms
 Keyboard and display
 Battery
Parts of the SET Total Station Contd
Micro-processor

 Averages multiple angle measurements

 Averages multiple distance measurements
 Computes horizontal and vertical distances
 Corrections for temp, pressure and humidity
 Computes inverses, polar, resections
 Computes X, Y and Z coordinates

Brief Description of Important Operation

Distance Measurement

Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of total station. Its
range varies from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from 5 mm
to 10 mm per km measurement. They are used with automatic target recognisers. The
distance measured is always sloping distance from instrument to the object.

Data Processing

This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor

averages multiple observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and
horizontal angles measured, when height of axis of instrument and targets are
supplied, the microprocessor computes the horizontal distance and X, Y, Z
coordinates. The processor is capable of applying temperature and pressure
corrections to the measurements, if atmospheric temperature and pressures are
supplied.

Display

Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys
are pressed. The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance,
horizontal and vertical angles, difference in elevations of two observed points and all
the three coordinates of the observed points.
• Electronic Book

Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc). The
capacity of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data. Surveyor
can unload the data stored in note book to computer and reuse the note book.

Field Procedure for Total Station in Topographic Surveying

1. Prior to Physical Setup of the Total Station

2. Tripod Setup

3. Mounting the Total Station

4. Setting up (Leveling) the Total Station

a) Centering

b) Leveling

c) Focusing

5. Setting up Prism over the Station

6. Powering Up the Total station

7. Powering Up the Palmtop Computer

8. Communication Techniques

9. Coding Specific Points

10. Data Downloading, Manipulation and Software

11. Preparation of Maps

Advantages of Using Total Stations

1. Field work is carried out very fast.

2. Accuracy of measurement is high.

3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.

 4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for
temperature and pressure are automatically made.

5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-
sections. Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time.

Components Used in Total Station Surveying

Types of Total Station Surveying

 Slope Staking
 Topographic surveys
 Construction project layout
  building corners
 control and offset lines

 Leveling
 Traverse surveys and adjustments
 Building Face Surveys
 Road (Highway) Surveys
 Taping from Baseline