Pwora301 - Well Prepared Road Alignment-1

RQF LEVEL 3
PUBLIC WORKS
MODULE CODE: PWORA301
TEACHER’S GUIDE
Module name: ROAD ALIGNMENT
1
SETTING
ROAD ALIGNMENT SETTING
2022
Table of content
...........................................................................................................................................i
Table of content.................................................................................................................ii
Acronyms........................................................................................................................viii
Introduction......................................................................................................................ix
Learning outcome 1: Prepare for field work........................................................................2
Indicative content 1.1: Interpretation of topographic map..................................................3
1.1.1. Identification of elements of topographic map..................................................3
Indicative content 1.2: Interpretation of road basic drawings............................................9
1.2.1.1. Longitudinal profile of the ground:.................................................................9
1.2.1.2. Interpretation of longitudinal profile of the project:....................................12
Indicative content 1.3: Preparation of the working area....................................................18
1.3.1. Method of clearing working area.....................................................................18
1.3.2. Method of clearing working area Steps of preparing site.................................18
Indicative content 1.4: Selection of tools, instrument/equipment and materials..............19
Indicative content 1.5: Application of safety measures....................................................28
1.5.1. Application of personal protective equipment.....................................................28
1.5.2. Safety consideration on environmental conditions at work.................................29
Learning outcome 2: Set Levels.........................................................................................33
Indicative content 2.1: Setting instruments for levels........................................................34
1.3.3. Steps of setting surveying instruments.............................................................34
1.3.4. Adjustment of surveying instruments..............................................................34
Indicative content 2.2: Recording of data..........................................................................36
2.2.1. The initial steps of data recording....................................................................36
2.2.2. Introduction to levelling key words..................................................................38
2.2.3. Staff reading..................................................................................................... 39
2.3.4. Calculations related to data recording from leveling........................................40
Indicative content 2.3: Marking of levels...........................................................................44
2.3.1. Set appropriate camber and longitudinal slope................................................44
2.3.2. Set horizontal and vertical curves.....................................................................46
2.3.3. Set gradients.....................................................................................................63
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Learning outcome 3: Delineate road profiles....................................................................67
Learning outcome 3 objectives:..............................................................................67

Indicative content 3.1: Interpretation of construction drawings........................................68
Theoretical learning Activity..............................................................................69
Practical learning Activity..............................................................................69

Indicative content 3.2: Demarcation of horizontal profile.................................................69
Spacing and Placement In tangent sections PMDs should be placed 200 to 500 feet (61
to 153 meters) apart in a continuous line not less than 2 feet (0.6 meters) or more than
8 feet (2.4 meters) outside the edge of the usable shoulder. Delineators should also be
placed on the outside of curves having a radius of 1,000 feet (305 meters) or less,
including medians in divided highways and freeway ramp curves.................................69
CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF A PAVEMENT.........................................69
The characteristics of cross-sectional elements are important in
highway geometric design because they influence the safety and
comfort. The 7 basic cross sectional elements of a highway pavement
are...................................................................................................................................69
1.CAMBER.......................................................................................................................... 70
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.........................................................................................................................................71
2.WIDTH OF CARRIAGE WAY..............................................................................................71
iv
.........................................................................................................................................72
3.KERBS.............................................................................................................................. 72
LOW OR MOUNTABLE KERBS............................................................................72
SEMI-BARRIER TYPE KERBS..............................................................................72
BARRIER TYPE KERBS.......................................................................................... 72
SUBMERGED KERBS.............................................................................................73
4.ROAD MARGINS.............................................................................................................. 73
SHOULDERS..............................................................................................................73
PARKING LANES.......................................................................................................73
BUS-BAYS...................................................................................................................73
SERVICE ROADS......................................................................................................73
CYCLE TRACK...........................................................................................................73
FOOTPATH..................................................................................................................74
GUARD RAILS............................................................................................................74
5.WIDTH OF FORMATION...................................................................................................74
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.........................................................................................................................................74
6. RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)....................................................................................................74
Theoretical learning Activity..............................................................................75
Practical learning Activity..............................................................................75

Indicative content 3.3: Demarcated vertical profile...........................................................76
Practical learning Activity............................................................................78

There exist different types of brick bond such English, dutch, row lock, rat trap, Flemish,
stretcher, header, stack, American, facing, raking, and zigzag bonds............................78
Learning out come 3: formative assessment..................................................79
Learning out come 4: formative assessment..................................................84

19. RS 175: wheelbarrow specifications............................................................................88
vi
Acronyms
DPC: Dump proof course

W/c: Water/ cement
∅: Diameter
L: Litre
R: Radius
NA: None applicable
vii
Introduction
This module describes the skills, knowledge and attitude required to set road alignment. It is
intended for learners who want to pursue the level 3 in public works.
At the end of this module the trainees will be able to prepare for work, define levels and
demarcate road profiles.
Qualified learners deemed competent to this competency shall have ability to take
responsibility for the carrying out of a range of basic defined activities in setting out the road
alignment under non-directive supervision.
viii
Module Code and Title: PWORA301_ROAD ALIGNMENT SETTING
Learning Outcome 1: Prepare for field work

Learning Outcome 2: Set levels
Learning Outcome 3: Delineate road profiles
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Learning outcome 1: Prepare for field work
Learning outcome 1.
Indicative contents:
1.1. Interpretation of topographic map
1.2. Interpretation of road basic drawings
1.3. Preparation of the working area
1.4. Selection of tools, instrument/equipment and materials
1.5. Application of safety measures
Duration: 10hrs
Learning outcome 1 objectives:
By the end of the learning outcome, the students will be able to:
1. Interpret appropriately topographic map with reference to the topographic area.
2. Interpret appropriately road basic drawing with respect to the standard
3. Prepare adequately the working area with respect to the work.
4. Select properly tools, instrument/equipment and materials in relation to the work.
5. Apply effectively safety measures with respect to the work.
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Resources
Equipment Tools Materials
 Computers  Workshop  Chalks
 Projector  Internet  Pens
 Papers
 Projection screen  Hoe
 Flip-chart
 Printers  Spade or shovel
 Maps,
 Drawing board  Drawing set  Drawings (road profiles),
 PPE  Wheelbarrow,  Pegs
 Hammer
Advance preparation:
 Efficient prepared road drawings and printed maps.
Indicative content 1. 1: Interprétations of topographic map

1.1.1. Identification of elements of topographic map
a) Basic terminologies of topographic map
 Map: is a diagrammatic representation of an area of land or sea showing physical

features, cities, roads, etc. It is a picture or representation of the Earth’s surface, showing
how things are related to each other by distances (coordinates); directions (North, South,
East, West) and size. A map is not a photograph of the earth’s surface because it can
show many things that a picture cannot show. A person who creates map as a profession
is called a cartographer.
 Elevation: is the altitude or height of the land above sea level
 Elevation map: is any map which shows the different elevations of an area.
 Contour lines: Lines join the point of equal elevations
 Index contour: Elevation lines that are labeled and usually darker than others
 Contour interval: The difference in elevation between two lines
 Horizontal equivalent: the horizontal distance between any two (2) adjacent contours
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 Topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative
representation of break, using contour lines by using different methods. Its show both
natural and man-made features.
b) Elements of a topographic map

A topographic map may contain a scale, contours, distances, directions, features and all other
elements that helpful to read topographic map; it is better to describe some of them as follow:
1. Map scale:
The scale is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.
The map scale is usually located in the legend box of a map, which explains the symbols and
provides other important information about the map.
A map scale can be printed (written) in a variety of ways and it can be neither full scale nor
enlarged (increasing) scale but reducing scale because it always represents a large surface
brought to small page of sheet:
 A ratio or Representative Fraction (RF): indicate how many units on the earth’s
surface are equal to one unit on the map. It can be expressed as “1/100,000” or
“1:100,000”.
 A word statement (Engineering scale): Gives a written description of map distance,
such as “1Cm=1Km” to indicate that “One centimeter equals to thousand
centimeters”.
 A graphical scale: It is simply line marked with distance on the ground which the
map user can use along with a ruler to determine scale on the map.
e.g.:
The first two methods of indicating map distance would be ineffective if the map is
reproduced by a method such as photocopying and the size of the map is modified.
Map scales are also known as large scale (which has larger fraction, e.g.: 1/25,000) or small
scale (which has smaller fraction, e.g.: 1/7,500,000).
How to measure distances on a map using a ruler and scale?
 Use a ruler to measure the distance between the two places. If the line is quite curved,
use a string to determine the length and then measure the string. If the scale is a
representative fraction, multiply the measured distance of the ruler or string by the
denominator, giving distance in the ruler units. Congratulation!
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2) Contours:
A contour line is an imaginary line on the map joining the points of equal elevation
(altitude).
On a map, elevations (vertical distances) can be represented by several methods such as

shading, hachure, contour lines and form lines. Out of these, the contour lines are most used
because they directly indicate the elevations.
 Contour interval:
This is the vertical distance between any two consecutive contours; and it is to be kept
constant on a contour map, otherwise, the general appearance of the map will be misread.
 Characteristics of contours:
The following characteristics features may be used while plotting or reading a contour map:
 Two contour lines of different elevations cannot cross each other. If they did, the point of
intersection would have two different elevations. However, contour lines of different
elevations can intersect only in the case of “Overhanging cliff” or “Cave”.
 Contour lines of different elevations can unit to form one line, only in case of a “Vertical
cliff”.
 Contour lines close together indicate “Steep slope”.

- They indicate “Gentle slope”, if they are far apart.
- They indicate “Uniform slope”, if they are equally spaced.
- They indicate “Plan surface”, if they are a series of straight, parallel and equally
spaced
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 A contour passing through any point is perpendicular to the line of steepest slope at the
point. This agrees with (3), since the perpendicular distance between contour lines is the
shortest distance.
 A closed contour with one or more higher ones inside, it represents “a hill”.
 A closed contour with one or more lower ones inside, it represents “a depression”
without an outlet.
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 Two contour lines having the same elevations cannot unit and continue as one line.
Similarly, a single contour line cannot split into two lines. This is evident because the
single line would, otherwise, indicate a knife-edge ridge or depression which does not
occur in nature. However, two different contours of the same elevation may approach
very near to each other.
 A contour line must close upon itself, though, not necessarily within the limits of the
map.
 Contour lines cross a watershed or ridgeline at right angle. They form curves of U-shape
round it with the concave side of the curve towards the higher ground.
 Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles. They form curves of V-shape across it,
with the convex side of the curve towards the higher ground.
 Depressions between summits is called a saddle. It is represented by four (4) sets of

contours as shown in the below figure. It represents a dip in a ridge or the junction of two
(2) ridges. In the case of a mountain range, it takes the form of a pass.
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1.1.2. Use of topographic map
A topographic map is the mostly used document in road design, especially to locate where the
road may pass for benefits of people to whom the project is designed for. The following are
some important uses of topographic maps:
 Trace of contour gradients and route location.

 Measure of drainage areas.
 Calculate of reservoir capacity.
 Understand roads and subways at new places.
 Calculate distance between two places.
 Know whether there are two or more paths to the same place and which is the shortest.
 We can get information about mountains, rivers, valleys or any other thing, which may
come on the way, and we can prepare for that.
 We can get the information like height of the place or ups and downs on the road.
 Boundaries of the land to define ownership.
 Places like houses, farmhouses, mines can be shown on the map.
 We can also mark crops, weather reports, direction of wind, rainfall on the maps.
 Government needs the map to keep the record of the owners.
 Geographic planning
 Large-scale architecture
 Earth sciences
 Electric engineering
 Mining
 Large-scale architecture
 Civil Engineering
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Theoretical learning Activity
 Brainstorm about identification of topographic map elements
 Group discussion on the uses of topographic map.
Practical learning Activity

 Trainees in group demonstrate correctly different asked feature on the map.
 Trainees measure distances on topographic map.
Points to Remember:
 Terminologies of topographic map

 Elements of topographic map mainly map scale, features and contours.
 Common uses of topographic map.
Indicative content 1.2: Interpretation of road basic drawings

1.2.1. Longitudinal profile (section) of the road
Longitudinal section (Profile) of the road may be of two types which are the longitudinal profile
of the ground and the longitudinal profile of the project.
The longitudinal profile of the road is defined as the vertical section along its centre line.
1.2.1.1. Longitudinal profile of the ground:

a) Recording road data from topographic map:
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From the above plan, the contour interval is 10metres and the horizontal equivalent is calculated
from the scale of 1 in 5000. Thus, using the rule, the first tangent on the map is measured as
20mm to represent the horizontal distance of 100m on the terrain.
CI 10 m
The slope will be hence, equal to: = =0.1=10 %
HE 100 m
Where: CI = Contour Interval (in metres) HE = Horizontal equivalent (in

metres)
Remember the principle of measuring distances on the map, as described previously that: “to
measure the distance between the two places, a ruler is used. And if the scale is a representative
fraction, multiply the measured distance of the ruler or string by the denominator, giving
distance in the ruler unit”.
Using the same principle, the other tangents were found and tabulated here below:
N ALTITUDE DISTANCES DISTANCE CUMMULATIV SLOPE

o
S ON ON E (%) + OR –
(m) MAP(mm) TERRAIN(m) DISTANCE(m)
1 90 – 80 20 100 100 10.00 -

2 80 – 70 31 155 255 06.45 -
3 70 – 60 20 100 355 10.00 -
4 60 – 60 14 70 425 00.00
5 60 – 70 19 95 520 10.53 +
6 70 – 80 20 100 620 10.00 +
7 80 – 90 22 110 730 09.09 +
8 90 – 90 22 110 840 00.00
The slope is named to be negative, the descending tangent in the direction of the route (from its
origin to its destination) or positive when the tangent is in ascending position.
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b) Data screening:
Important (wanted) elements, useful on the road drawing, are maintained by unnecessary
elements exclusion as tabulated in the example below:
No PROFI ALTITU DISTANC CUMMULAT SLOP DISTANCES
LE DES E ON IVE E ON THE
NUMB (m) TERRAIN DISTANCE( (%) DRAWING
ER (m) m) PAPER (mm)
1 A-b 90 – 80 100 100 10.00 125.00

2 b–c 80 – 70 155 255 06.45 193.75
3 c–d 70 – 60 100 355 10.00 125.00
4 d–e 60 – 60 70 425 00.00 087.50
5 e–f 60 – 70 95 520 10.53 118.75
6 f–g 70 – 80 100 620 10.00 125.00
7 g–h 80 – 90 110 730 09.09 137.50
8 h–L 90 – 90 110 840 00.00 137.50
c) Interpretation of longitudinal profile of the ground:
The longitudinal profile of the road is usually plotted on a specially prepared paper on which the
vertical scale is much larger than the horizontal scale.
Generally, the horizontal scale is adopted as for example 1/1000. The vertical scale is not kept
the same as the horizontal scale but is balanced so that the inequalities of the ground appear
more apparent. The vertical scale is kept about 10 times the horizontal scale. This means a
vertical scale of 1/100 where the used horizontal scale is about 1/1000.
On the paper, the horizontal and vertical axes are traced to meet one another. The horizontal
axis, of the length equal to the total cumulative distances, is used to indicate horizontal distances
of the route and the vertical axis for its elevations.
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1.2.1.2. Interpretation of longitudinal profile of the project:
The following is the example of longitudinal profile from the given above plan. It combines both
ground and project longitudinal profiles:
 The two first columns from the bottom of the paper are reserved for the indications of the
project (the first for Tangents and Curves and the second for Declivities or gradients of
project).
 The third one is intended for the numbers of profile.
 The fourth from the bottom comprises the Cumulative distances which are the total
distances of each profile (gradient change) from the origin of the route.
 The fifth column is reserved for Particular distances which are the distances between two
consecutive profiles.
 The sixth column comprises Elevations of the ground.
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 The Elevations of the project are indicated in the seventh column which is limited by the
horizontal axis named “Datum” or “Comparison plan”.
A Datum to any elevation is thus chosen with lowest altitude of the ground or project. It may
be below the lowest level at the distance of single or double contour interval. The name
“Datum” or an abbreviation “CP” (to mean the comparison plan) should be indicated on the
upper side of horizontal axis with its corresponding elevation in metres.
Fictive point (FP) determination:
The Fictive Point also named “Fictitious Profile” and abbreviated as “FP”, is the point where
the line of the ground cuts the line of project. It is a profile on which the cuts and fills are zero.
In earthwork calculation, it will be necessary to know where the fictive point is located; so,
from the following sketch, the fictive point can be calculated as follow:
In the two similar triangles “ABP” and “CDP” or “A’B’P’” and “C’P’D’”, we have:
AB CD AB+CD AB+CD AB∗MN CD∗MN
= = = Thus: X = and Y=
X Y X +Y MN AB+CD CD+ AB
As the fictive point “FP” influences much in earthwork, it will be thus appropriate to consider
the longitudinal profile before construction, not one of the finished roads. When the distance “X”
or “Y” is known, there is compensation between cut and fill: the “X” side can compensate the
“Y” side.
In the case of surplus, the deposit is created and a soil loan may be needed in opposite case.
EXERCISE:
Calculate the fictive point (FP) at “X” and “Y” from the following longitudinal profile.
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1.2.2. Interpret cross-section of the road
The cross-section of the road also named “Transverse Profile” of the road is defined as the
vertical section of the road at right angle to its centre line. It is a transversal section of the road
following a vertical plan perpendicular to the real axis of the road.
Parts of transverse profile may be grouped from the following list and each part is further
described.
These are: Carriageways, Shoulders, Ditches, Slopes either cut or fill, Benches, Crossfall
(Camber), etc.
The following are examples of cross-sections of the two lanes roadway, showing road parts:
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ROAD PARTS DESCRIPTION
A Lane for vehicles.

B Shoulder for pedestrians.
C Gutter (small triangular section drain) for surface water drainage.
D Trapezoidal ditch for surface water drainage.
E The bench for retaining collapsing soil from cutting slop.
F Sidewalk
G Cut slope
H Retaining wall
K Two lanes carriageway or pavement
L Platform
M Plate
N Extent (Road land)
P Road axis (Centre line) to separate lanes.
R Kerb
X Undefined meters for urban-land.
Z Right-of-way (Few meters reserved on both sides of road for
telecommunication cables or further widening )
W Cut-off ditch
Cross-sections are run at right angle to the longitudinal profile and on either sides of it for the
purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for estimating quantities
of earthwork and other purposes. The cross-sections are numbered consecutively from the
starting point of the centre line.
When plotting the transverse section of the road, the draughtsman may be turned towards the
origin of the road.
The same manner as the longitudinal plotting is almost adopted except that in cross-section
plotting both the vertical and horizontal scales are kept equal or the vertical being twice the
horizontal scale. Also, four columns are sufficient to include elevations of the project,
elevations of the ground, project cumulative distances and project gradients (inclinations). The
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following is the example of cross-section of the road cut in profile number 1 (refer to the given
longitudinal profile above):
Carriageway widths should be increased on curves to allow for the swept paths of longer
vehicles, and the necessary tolerances in lateral displacement as vehicles follow a curve.
The amount of width recommended by AASHTO (American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials) for two-lane roads are shown below, according to functional
classification of the roads and the terrain on which they are located:
ROAD ROLLING AND LEVEL TERRAINS MOUNTAINOUS TERRAINS

CLASS A (m) 2L (m) B (m) A (m) 2L (m) B (m)
Arterial 10 – 13 6 – 7.5 ≥2 8 – 10 6 – 7.5 ≥1

Collector 10 – 12 6 – 6.8 ≥2 8–9 6 – 6.8 ≥1
Access 7.5 – 8 5.5 – 6 ≥1 7.5 – 8 5.5 – 6 ≥1
N.B: The carriageway width”2L” being twice the one lane width “L”.
Exercise: After observing cerfeuil the following road transversal section showing the two lanes
road components, make correction on wrong sizes if required:
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 Ask trainees to demonstrate road components from both types of road profiles,
mentioning their sizes.

 NA (None Applicable)
Points to Remember
Longitudinal profile of the road shows declivities of the road in forward direction. There
are two types of road longitudinal profiles:
 Longitudinal profile of the ground

 Longitudinal profile of the project
Cross section shows all components of the road in its transversal direction with their
corresponding dimensions.
We always need both longitudinal and transversal profile for setting any segment of road
alignment on site.
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Indicative content 1.3: Preparation of the working area
1.3.1. Method of clearing working area

 Shower and sanitize your hands before every shift
 Make sure that you have all necessary supplies
 Clean and sanitize portable toilets and handwashing stations
 Set up traffic safety signs
 Recycle at the end of your shift
 After work, sanitize and take a shower
1.3.2. Method of clearing working area Steps of preparing site
 Site observation and evaluation. First, you need to find out all of the
peculiarities of the site.
 Soil Testing.
 Demolition.
 Underground utility mapping.
 Removing Asbestos.
 Site surveying and set out.
 Clearing the site.
 Site excavation and earthwork

 Trainees discuss about methods and steps of clearing the construction site.

Points to Remember
 Before starting setting out of road alignment, the site should be cleared using any
economic method.
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Indicative content 1.4: Selection of tools, instrument/equipment
and materials
1.4.1. Select materials
1. Builder’s line or string:

This is a basic tool to align bricks on masonry wall. Usually a nylon line is used and it can be
from 1mm to 3mm diameter.
2. Reference pegs
Reference pegs are used to mark the alignment and/or the levels of the road. Usually, they are
made of wood. These pegs should have a length of approximately 40 cm and a cross-section 5
cm round or 5 × 5 square
Ensure that these pegs are hammered deep into the ground so that it will be impossible for
children to remove them. This should be done even if it means a lot of work, as reference pegs
are vital during construction and very useful as references for maintenance afterwards.
3. Nails
They are of different varieties based on sizes (length). The more useful in setting out varies from
4cm to 6cm.
1.4.2. Select tools
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1) Shovels and spades
The shovel is effective for scooping up material and throwing it either onto a trailer, truck or
wheelbarrow or directly to where the material is needed.
Contrary to a shovel a spade can also be used for loosening the soil. Spades have stronger blades
than shovels. The blades are curved only in one direction.
The handle should be long enough to allow the worker to throw the soil with little effort. For
workers with an average stature a length of 65-70 cm is recommended.
Shovels and spades should not have sharp rivets or joints which damage the hands of the user.
When buying shovels or spades ensure that the joint blade/handle is smooth.
2) Spirit Level
Used to indicate how parallel (level) or perpendicular (plumb) a surface is relative to the earth.
3) Hammer
Used to chip out chunks of plaster and to re-secure or remove problematic pieces of lath.
4) Tape measure
A great variety of tape measures exist. The most common length of tape measure used for setting
out is 30 metres. The tapes are made of steel or linen. Although the former is stronger, the
numbers become illegible after a period of use.
5) Right Angled Scales
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It is used to set the right angle corner. The square is 30cm x 60cm long.
6) Ranging rods
Ranging rods are sticks usually 2.5-3.0 metres long with a diameter of approximately 2.5 cm.
They are made of various materials (metal, hard plastic or wood) and are usually provided
with a pointed metal end. Painted alternatively red and white they are clearly visible. The
length of the red/white sections varies: 25 cm, 30 cm or 50 cm.
7) Boning rods
These are T-shaped and of a uniform height. They can be easily manufactured by nailing a
wooden lath of approximately 80 cm long and 10 cm wide on another lath of approximately
150 cm long and 10 cm wide so that the end result looks like a "T" (figure 5). A simple stand
can be manufactured so that the setting out can be done by two instead of three persons if
necessary.
When "level pegs" show two levels of the road "boning rods" can be used to establish a "line
of sight", which enables you to find additional levels in between or beyond the level pegs.
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This "line of sight" is established by putting boning rods on top of the level pegs and looking
over the top of the boning rods.
Figure below shows how the new level is found:
This man can see that boning rod 3 is too low. When the man in the middle moves uphill his
boning rod will come into the line of sight. He then moves his boning rod up (or down) until
the top is at the correct height. The bottom of the boning rod is then at the required new
level.
Note that this method should not be used to set out new alignments in hilly terrain, but only
to find additional points between level pegs!
Setting out in hilly terrain by an inexperienced person can cause excessive and unnecessary
earthworks.
8) Triangle sets
These can be manufactured from three wooden laths to show different angles.
They can be used for various purposes:
 to set out a right angle to a centre-line (which has to be done when cross-sections
are set out);
 to control or estimate the steepness of gradients (in this case a spirit level or
plumbing line is also required).
The steepness of gradients is described as a ratio: for example a gradient of 1:2 means
that for this gradient 2 metres in the horizontal direction have to be covered for every
metre of vertical rise (figure 7).
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2.
How to measure a gradient with a triangle set?
Gradients can be measured with a triangle set if the top lath is horizontal. This can be achieved
either by placing a spirit level on the top lath or with a piece of string with an attached weight
(plumb line), fixed on the vertical lath. Figure below shows the measurement of a 1:1 slope (45°)
with a triangle set, controlled by the string method.
9) Gradient template
Gradient template is a device which can be easily manufactured on site. With a gradient template
a line of sight can be established at a particular angle.
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To use the gradient template for finding a new level you need to:
 Know the required gradient

 Have one level point.
The gradient template can also be used to determine what the gradient is when two level points
are known.
To manufacture the gradient template you need:
- Four pieces of wooden lath (length approx. 60 cm);

- A plumb line (a piece of strong thin wire with a suitable weight)
- A standard approximately 1.5 metres high.
The engineer or surveyor will mark the gradients on the bottom edge of the triangle, and two
nails fixed on the middle lath, as shown in figure below, establish the line of sight.
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When you look along this line of sight to the top of a pole held by an assistant, you can see
whether the point where he has placed this pole is at the right level. If this is not so, you tell him
to move the pole upwards or downwards until the right level has been found.
The standard is not a tripod but should have two legs to make it easier for the operator to hold
the template stable while looking along the line of sight.
10) The straight-edge
An easy way to measure a gradient (short distanced) is to use a straight-edge in combination

with a spirit level and a tape measure.
Figure below shows how a gradient of 1:15 is measured. The straight-edge is usually about 5
metres in length and is set horizontally with a spirit level. This method should be used for the
measurement of gradients which continue only for short distances, e.g. culvert beds
11) A camber board
25
A camber board is used to control the camber of the road. Its length is usually the distance
centre-line shoulder. In cases where the shoulder has the same gradient as the running surface
the length of the camber board can also include the shoulder.
The camberboard is used in combination with a spirit level. If the spirit level is placed on top
and is level, the under side of the camberboard shows a gradient of 5 per cent.
1.4.3. Select equipment
1) Wheelbarrow
The wheelbarrow is designed to distribute the weight of its load between the wheel and the
operator, so enabling the convenient carriage of heavier and bulkier loads than would be possible
were the weight carried entirely by the operator.
2) Surveyor’s level
If available, both instrument and skills, surveyor’s level may be used instead of gradient
template but the technique will remain constant.
3) Theodolite
26
This instrument can be used for the measurement of vertical angles as well as for setting out
levels.
Vertical angles are measured as follows: the sight is taken on to a point which should be at the
same height above the ground as the eye of the observer. The line of sight will then be parallel to
the ground surface between A and B (figure below).
Holding the theodolite in this position (the cross hair intersects the target), the air-bubble in the
tube of the theodolite should be positioned in the middle against the cross hair by turning the
milled head. The angle of the line of sight with the horizontal can then be read on the circle or
screen depending on the type of theodolite.
The theodolite can also be used to set out certain gradients, The circle should be set at the
required angle or gradient (e.g. 5°40' or 1:10) and a line of sight established.

 Trainees discuss about different types of tools, materials and equipment used in road
alignment setting
27
Points to Remember
 Before starting setting out of road alignment, the proper selection of materials, tools
and equipment should be ensured to make the work not only faster and economic but
also of quality level.
Indicative content 1.5: Application of safety measures

1.5.1. Application of personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is equipment worn to minimize

exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and illnesses. These injuries and
illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or
other workplace hazards.
Personal protective equipment may include items such as gloves, safety glasses and shoes,
earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests and full body suits.
1.5.2. Safety consideration on environmental conditions at work
1.5.2.1. The basics of safety

 Stay alert and stay alive.
 Wear the right clothes: work clothes should fit properly.
 Use the right tools: if you need a hammer, get a hammer.
 Learn how to lift: lifting takes more than muscle; it is an art.
Environmental conditions are a set of factors associated with the environment in which work is
conducted. This can affect an employee's capacity to execute duties and tasks on the job. All
workplace environments consist of perceived risks, often incurring illness, injury, and in some
cases, death.
28
1.5.2.2. Four environmental conditions to avoid
a) Noise pollution
Loud, sustained, or stressful sounds can harm employees in three distinct ways: First, a sudden
sharp burst of sound can cause trauma to the tympanic membrane or the sensitive anatomy of the
inner ear.
b) Heat exposure
Employees who work under very hot or humid conditions, especially those who are required to
wear uniforms or protective gear that can exacerbate heat stress, must be monitored and
protected from hyperthermia, dehydration, and heat exhaustion.
c) Cold exposure
Cold conditions can expose employees to hypothermia, skin damage, and poor judgment which
may lead to injury. Like heat exposure, cold-related hazards can be kept at bay with proper
indoor climate controls.
d) Light conditions
Employees who work under low light conditions or outdoors during night time hours must be
protected from the hazards and injuries that result from compromised vision. Proper traffic
signalling and working signal lights on forklifts and shop floor vehicles are a must.

 Trainees discuss about application of safety measures.

Points to Remember
PPE is equipment worn to minimize exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace
injuries and illnesses. Some environmental conditions to avoid are noise pollution, heat and
cold exposure, and poor lighting conditions.
29
Learning out come 1 : formative assessment
Written assessment
At the end of each of the following statements, write “True” if it is correct or “False” if it is
incorrect
a) Safety signs should be large, illegible, colourful and eye-catching, rather than appearing
into the background. …………
b) Safety signs should be permanent fixtures, excluding in situations where the hazard
itself is only provisional, such as during a repair job. …………
c) Do not place too many safety signs together in close approachability, as this can lessen
their visual impact and make it easier to communicate the most relevant information.
…………
d) Illuminated electronic safety signs may be needed to draw extra attention, or to remain
visible even in the dark particularly when it comes to fire exit signs. ………...
e) If working practices change and a former hazard is eliminated, the escorting safety signs
also need to be replaced. …………
Circle the letter that corresponds to the required answer
1) PPE can be classified based on their functions such as, except:
a) Respiratory and ear protection

b) Head and eye protection
c) Foot and hand protection
d) Body protection
e) None is incorrect
f) None is correct
2) There are three types of hearing protection which are:

a) Earmuffs/defenders that completely cover the ear.
b) Ear plugs that are inserted into the ear canal.
c) Semi inserts
d) A and B are correct
e) All are correct
3) Tasks where head protection may be required include:

a) Construction and building repair
b) Work in excavations or tunnels
30
c) Work with bolt driving tools
d) Driving motorcycles.
e) All are correct
4) Tasks where eye protection may be used include, except:
a) Handling hazardous substances
b) Working with power driven tools
c) Welding operations
d) Working with razors
e) Using gas or vapour under pressure.
5) Examples of common tasks on construction sites requiring long sleeve shirts and long
pants could include:
a) Applying foundation water‐proofing materials

b) Concrete form work
c) Tasks where protruding nails and splinters are present
d) Welding operations
e) All above are incorrect
Ten figures below represent construction tools and equipment, after observing them carefully,
answer to the following questions:
a) Name each correctly.
b) What is the specific use of each?
c) Which of them are equipment?
Give appropriate answers to the following open questions:

1. List any five (5) construction materials you may find on construction site.
31
2. Characterize in four aspects, a quality mixing place for cement mortar ingredients.
3. Your company assigned you a task of installing a bought warning sign at the main gate
because of some construction activities that took place near the gate. What are four sign
post accessories you may need? Clarify the use of each.
Practical assessment
 NA (None applicable)
Learning outcome 2: Set Levels
Learning outcome 2
2.1. Setting instruments for levels
2.2. Recording of data
2.3. Marking of levels
Duration: 20 hrs
32
By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:
1. Set accurately surveying instruments as per setting techniques.
2. Record precisely data for road alignment setting in reference to the benchmark.
3. Mark adequately levels on pegs with reference to the recorded data.
Resources
 Computers  Shovel or spade  Maps,
 Projector  Hammer  Drawings,
 Projection screen  Tape measure,  Pegs
 Printers
 PPE
 Dumpy level,
 Staff,
 Tripod,
 Plumb bob,
o Cleared ground with gentle slope or flat terrain.
Indicative content 2.1: Setting instruments for levels
1.3.3. Steps of setting surveying instruments
Setting of surveying instruments for setting out road alignment may be done through the
following steps:
1. Fixing the tripod into the ground
2. Legs adjustment
3. Fixing the instrument over tripod
4. Levelling with a three screw head
33
5. The plumb bob is suspended from a small hook attached to the vertical axis of the
level
6. Focusing the telescope on the staff
7. Reading the staff and circles
8. Boxing: After finish the work, the instrument is placed in the box.
1.3.4. Adjustment of surveying instruments
The adjustments to be made at every setting of the instrument are called temporary adjustments
(Station adjustments). They are similar for both levels and theodolites. When the fundamental
relations between some parts or axis of surveying instrument are disturbed, the permanent
adjustment is required. In our case of setting road alignment we only need temporary adjustment.
The purpose (important) of temporary adjustment for any topographic instrument is clarified
through the following three steps which are required for the instrument whenever set over a new
point before taking a reading:
▪ Setting up (Centering)
▪ Leveling up
▪ Focusing (Parallax elimination).
a) Setting up
Tripod is set on the ground firmly so that its top is at a convenient height. Then the level is fixed
on its top. By turning tripod legs radially or circumferentially, the instrument is approximately
leveled. Many instruments (levels) are provided with a circular bubble on their tribranch for this
purpose.
b) Leveling up
The procedure of accurate leveling with three leveling screw is as given below:
1. Loosen the clamp and turn the telescope until the bubble axis is parallel to the line
joining any two screws.
2. Turn the two screws inward or outward equally and simultaneously till bubble is
centred.
3. Turn the telescope by 90° so that it lies over the third screw and level the instrument
by operating the third screw.
4. Turn back the telescope to its original position and check the bubble. Repeat steps (b)
to (d) till bubble is centred for both positions of the telescope.
5. Rotate the instrument by 180°. Check the leveling.
c) Focusing
Focusing is necessary to eliminate parallax while taking reading on the staff. The following two
steps are required in focusing:
1. Focusing the eyepiece: For this, hold a sheet of white paper in front of telescope and
rotate eyepiece in or out till the cross hairs are seen sharp and distinct.
34
2. Focusing the objective: For this telescope is directed towards the staff and the
focusing screw is turned till the reading appears clear and sharp.

 Trainees discuss about the process of setting surveying instruments like level and
theodolites with the purpose of using them in setting out road alignment.

 Every trainee apply temporary adjustment of level and theodolite used for setting road
tangents grades and distances on the field.
Points to Remember
Before using surveying instrument to record data from the field during setting out road
alignment, the following stages of temporary adjustment should be appropriately done.
These are:
- Setting up (Centering)
- Leveling up
- Focusing (Parallax elimination).
Indicative content 2.2: Recording of data
2.2.1. The initial steps of data recording
A single or a combination of two of the following methods used in recording data from the field
may be used:
 Note taking.
 Field sketching.
 Photographing.
 Labeliing samples.
 Tape recording.
 Filling in questionnaires.
 Tallying
35
 Tabulation
Tabulation is the popular method used when surveying data recording due to its interpretation
simplicity. The operation is technically called “Booking levels” or simply “Booking”.
The booking of readings and reducing the levels can be carried out systematically in the tabular
form. There are two such methods:
- Plane of collimation method or Height of Instrument method
- Rise and fall method
Let illustrate below the both methods, taking again the problem given in III.3.2 (Differential
Levelling) and assuming intermediate sights to E1= 0.80m and E2= 0.70m.
a) Booking and reducing levels by plane of collimation method
In this method note the following:
* Plane of collimation for first setting = RL of BM + BS

* Subtract IS from plane of collimation to get RL of intermediate station and subtract
FS from plane of collimation to get RL of change point.
* Add back sight to RL of change point to get new plane of collimation.
* Check: ΣBS – ΣFS = RL of Last point – RL of first point.
* If it is negative, it is fall and if positive it is rise.
b) Booking and reducing levels by rise and fall method
36
Note the following:
* From A to E1, difference = 1.35 – 0.80 = 0.55, rise

* From E1 to CP1, difference = 0.80 – 1.65 = – 0.85, fall
* From CP1 to E2, difference = 1.40 – 0.70 = 0.70, rise
* From E2 to CP2, difference = 0.70 – 1.70 = –1.00, fall
* From CP2 to B, difference = 1.30 – 1.85 = – 0.55, fall.
2.2.2. Introduction to levelling key words
Setting-out road alignment cannot be separated from levelling because setting-out is the
activity mainly based on comparing levels of points under consideration. The following are
general key words:
1) Leveling: It may be defined as the art of determining the elevations of given points
above or below a datum line or establishing given points of required heights above or
below the datum line
2) Level Surface: A curved surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth
3) Level line: An imaginary line drawn on the level surface
4) Horizontal Surface: A surface tangential to level surface at a given point
5) Vertical Line: is the line connecting the station to the centre of the earth (plumb line at
the station).
6) Station: is the point where the staff is held and not where the level is set up. It is the
point whose elevation is to be found or established.
7) Datum: The level of a point or the surface, with respect to which levels of other points
or planes are calculated, is called a datum or datum surface.
8) Mean Sea Level (MSL): The average height of the sea's surface for all stages of tide
over a 19 years period. In all important surveys this is used as datum.
37
9) Reduced Levels (RL): The level of a point taken as height above the datum surface
10) Benchmarks: is a relatively permanent reference point, the elevation of which is

known or assumed. It is used as a starting point for levelling or as a point upon which
to close for a check.
11) Plane of Collimation (CP): It is the reduced level of plane of sight with respect to the
datum selected. It is also known as ‘height of instrument’ (HI). It should not be
confused with the height of telescope from the ground where the instrument is set.
12) Back Sight (BS): It is the sight taken on a level staff held on the point of known
elevation with an intension of determining the plane of collimation. It is always the first
reading after the instrument is set in a place. It is also known as plus sight, since this
reading is to be added to RL of the point (Benchmark or change point) to get plane of
collimation.
13) Fore Sight (FS): This is the last reading taken from the instrument station before
shifting it or just before ending the work. The intension of taking these readings is to
find the reduced levels of the points where staff is held. These sights are known as
‘minus sights’ since the reading is to be subtracted from plane of collimation to get RL
of the point where staff is held.
14) Intermediate Sight (IS): Sights taken on staff after back sight and fore sight. It is also
a minus sight.
15) Change Point (CP) or Turning Point (TP): Is a point on which both fore sights and
back sights are taken. After taking fore sight on this point instrument is set at some
other convenient point and back sight is taken on the staff held at the same point. The
two readings help in establishing the new plane of collimation with respect to the earlier
datum. Since there is time gap between taking the two sights on the change point, it is
advisable to select change point on a well-defined point.
2.2.3. Staff reading
A leveling staff is usually graduated into metric units (meter, decimeter or centimeter) or into
English system (feet, inch, furlongs, etc). The bottom of the staff represents zero reading and
should be held touching fully the point to be leveled.
The reading given by the line of sight (horizontal sight) on a leveling staff is the height of line of
collimation. The middle hair is useful in this case, for reading levels. The upper and lower cross
hairs (stadia hairs) are used to determine upper reading and lower reading respectively.
To read the staff, the telescope into which the diaphragm is inserted, becomes in used.
Diaphragm is a thin metal ring stretched across the reticule to hold this in place. The reticule is
flat metal ring on which crosshairs are labeled. The following are usual cross-hairs in surveyor’s
level and theodolites:
38
Looking through the telescope towards staff, firstly try to rotate eyepiece to give a sharp-clear
image of cross hairs. Secondly, rotate objective focusing knob to give a sharp-clear image of the
staff.
The followings are staves as they are seen through the telescope:
The unit can be taken as meter, decimeter, centimeter or millimeter depending upon which
is used in staff graduations. For this case, the unit is meter. If horizontal sight were applied,
the check of reading will be simple as follow:
a+c 1.968+1.895
b= = =1.9315 ≈ 1.931
2 2
This means: the medium reading (central reading) equals to average of stadia reading.
Note that “the quicker the reading is, the more accuracy becomes higher”. This should be
considered especially in windy environment where the interval between (a-b) and (b-c) changes
as the reading is slower.
2.3.4. Calculations related to data recording from leveling
Example1. The following staff readings were observed successively with a level. The instrument
has been shifted after the second and fifth reading: 0.675, 1.230, 0.750, 2.565, 2.225, 1.935,
1.835, and 3.220. The first reading was with staff held on benchmark of RL 100.000 m. Enter
the readings in a page of level book and calculate the RL of all points. Apply arithmetic checks.
Use plane of collimation method.
The answer is tabulated below:

39
a) Reduce the levels by plane of collimation (Height of instrument) method:
b) Reduce the levels by rise and fall method:
Example 2: The following figure shows an example of differential levelling from A to B.
40
RL of A is 200.00m. Instrument is set up at L 1 and back sight on A is 1.35m. The fore sight
on change point CP1 is 1.65 m. Then instrument is shifted to L 2 and back sight on CP1 is
1.40m. Fore sight on CP2 is 1.70m. After this instrument is shifted to L3 and back sight on
CP2 is 1.3m. The work ended with a fore sight of 1.85m on B. Calculate the RL of B.
Solution: RL of A= 200.00m and Back sight = 1.35 m → Plane of collimation at L 1= 200 +
1.35 = 201.35m
Fore sight on CP1= 1.65m → RL of CP 1= 201.35 – 1.65 =
199.70 m
Back sight to CP1 from L2 = 1.40m → Plane of collimation at L 2= 199.70
+ 1.40 = 201.10m
Fore sight to CP2 = 1.70m → RL of CP 2= 201.10 – 1.70 =
199.40m
Back sight to CP2 from L3 = 1.30m → Plane of collimation at L 3 =
199.40 + 1.30 = 200.70m
Fore sight to B = 1.85m → RL of B = 200.70 – 1.85 =
198.85m
Note: If there are intermediate sight to the points E and S, the RL of those points may be
obtained by subtracting readings for E and S from the corresponding plane of
collimations.
Example 3: Reciprocal leveling was conducted with a dumpy level to record the following
readings.
Instrument near Staff reading at

A B
A 1.245 1.575
B 1.050 0.700
Compute the RL of B, if RL of A = 218.250m.
41
Solution: Given ha = 1.245m hb = 1.575m hc = 1.505m hd = 0.700m
1 1
ΔH ¿
2
[ ( ha+hc ) – ( hb +hd ) ] = [ ( 1.245+1.505 ) – (1.575+ 0.700 ) ] =0.2375m
2
or
1 1
ΔH ¿
2
[ ( ha−hb ) + ( hc−hd ) ] = [ ( 1.245−1.575 )+ (1.505−0.700 ) ] =0.2375m
2
Plane of collimation = 218.250 + 1.245 = 219.495m
∴ Elevation of B= 219.495 – 0.2375 = 219.2575m
Exercise 1:
The following staff readings were taken along a straight length of a road. Reduce the level and
check the accuracy of the readings using Height of instrument method.
Exercise 2: The following readings were taken with a level and a 4m staff; 0.683, 1.109, 1.838,
3.399, (3.877 and 0.1451) change point, 1.405, 1.896, 2.676, 3.478, (3.999 and 1.834) change
point, 0.649, 0.706.
(i) Draw up a level book page and reduce the level by rise and fall method.
(ii) Check the accuracy of the work.
 Trainees discuss about different formulas used in levelling
 Trainees reduce/calculate field levels in each example and workout exercise 1 and 2.
42
Points to Remember
Setting out using surveying instruments like levels and theodolites requires some
calculations. There after obtained results are transferred on the ground or used to
make decisions during verification of the work done.
Indicative content 2.3: Marking of levels
2.3.1. Set appropriate camber and longitudinal slope
1. Setting straight line (road tangent axis) with longitudinal slope
On flat ground the centre-line of the road is set out initially as a series of
straight lines. Ranging rods and pegs are used for this purpose. The distance
between the centre-line pegs should not be more than 20 metres.
2. Set appropriate camber or cross-fall
Two-lane roads should be provided with a camber consisting of a straight line crossfall from
the centre line to the carriageway edges, while straight crossfall from edge to edge of the
carriageway can be used for single-lane roads and for each carriageway of divided roads.
The crossfall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so
great as to be hazardous by making steering difficult. The road surface must be constructed
with a sufficient camber or crossfall to shed rainwater quickly.
43
The ability of a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved
roads, the minimum acceptable value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry surface
water away from the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which
erosion of material starts to become a problem.
Generally, a crossfall of 3% on paved roads and 4 to 6% on unpaved roads are recommended.

The crossfall of unpaved roads will reduce over time due to action of traffic and weather, and
rutting may develop. To avoid the ruts developing into pot-holes, a crossfall of 5or 6% should
be reestablished.
The following are examples of 3% camber types in two-lane road pavements:
44
The camber can be reduced to a minimum of 2% for cement concrete road pavements and to
2.5% for asphaltic concrete pavements. Normally, it may be 3% for the tarred-macadam road
pavements. All unpaved road surfaces should have a camber of not less than 4% and not higher
than 6%.
2.3.2. Set horizontal and vertical curves
Curves are generally used on highways where it is necessary to change the direction of motion.
Horizontal curve/curvature is a curve or succession of curves, normally circular, in plan.
A curve may be Circular, Parabolic or Spiral and is always connect two straight directions
(tangents). Circular curves are divided into three types from which the simple circular curve is
only to be discussed. The remaining types are Compound and Reversing circular curves.
 Simple circular curve is the one which consists of a single arc of a circle. It is tangential
to both the straight lines (tangents).
 Compound circular curve consists of two or more simple arcs that turn in the same
direction and join at common tangent points.
 Reverse circular curve is the one which consists of two circular arcs of same or
different radii, having their centres to the different sides of the common tangent. Both the
arcs thus bend in different directions with a common tangent at their junction.
2.3.2.1. Simple circular curves
a) DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS:
45
1. Length of tangent or Tangent Distance (T): Is the distance between the Point of the
Curve (T1) or the Point of Tangency (T2) and the Vertex (Point of Intersection).
2. Back tangent: Also called “First tangent” is the tangent (AT1) previous to the curve.
3. Forward tangent: Also called “Second tangent” is the tangent (T2B) following the
curve.
4. Vertex (V) or Point of intersection (PI): If the back and forward tangents are produced,
they will meet in a point called Vertex or Point of Intersection.
5. Point of curvature (T1): Is the beginning of the curve, where the alignment changes
from a tangent to a curve.
6. Point of tangency (T2): It is the end of the curve, where the alignment changes from a
curve to a tangent.
7. Intersection angle (α): or External deflection angle between two tangents. Is the angle
between “AV” produced and “VB”.
8. Deflection angle: Deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle at T 1, between
the back tangent and the chord from T1 to point on the curve.
9. External or Apex distance (E): It is the distance from the mid-point of the curve to the
vertex (V).
10. Length of the curve: It is the total length of the curve from T1 to T2.
11. Long chord: It is the chord joining T1 and T2.
12. Midi-chord: It is a half the long chord.
13. Normal chord: It is a chord between two successive regular stations on a curve.
14. Sub-chord: Any chord shorter than normal curve.
15. Mid-ordinate It is the ordinate from the mid-point of the long chord to the mid-point of
the curve
16. Right hand curve: It is the curve that deflects to the right of the direction of road user.
17. Left hand curve: It is the curve that deflects to the left of the direction of road user.
b) CALCULATION OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE ELEMENTS:
∝ ∝
i) Length of tangent: T =TV =O T 1∗tan =R∗tan
2 2
∝ ∝
ii) External distance or Apex distance: E=VC=VO−CO=R∗sec −R=R(sec −1)
2 2
α α
iii) Length of the curve: Lc=T 1 C T 2=2∗π∗R =π∗R
400 200
α α
iv)Long chord: Ch=T 1 T 2=2∗OT 1∗sin =2∗R∗sin
2 2
∝ ∝
v) Mid-ordinate: M =CD=CO−DO=R−R∗cos =R(1−cos )
2 2
46
vi)Other points on the curve: Let XA and YA be respectively abscissa and ordinate of
the point A on the curve or any other point to set out the curve. Thus: XA=R∗sin β
and YA=R(1−cos β)
Worked example 1:
Two horizontal tangents meet at central angle of 172 grades. Calculate all necessary data to
connect two tangents with the 500m radius of curvature.
Solution:
∝ 28
i) External deflection angle: α = 200 – 172 = 28gon → = =14 gon
2 2
∝
ii) Length of tangent: T =R∗tan =500∗tan14 gon=111.76 m
2
iii) Apex distance: E=R sec(∝
2 )
−1 =500 ( sec 14 gon−1 ) =12.34 m
α 3.142∗500∗28
iv) Length of the curve: Lc=π∗R = =219.94 m
200 200
α
v) Long chord: Ch=2∗R∗sin =2∗500∗sin 14 gon=218.14 m
2
( ∝
)
vi) Mid-ordinate: M =R 1−cos =500 ( 1−cos 14 gon )=12.04 m
2
Worked example 2:
A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60° deflection angle. calculate (i) length of curve, (ii)
tangent length, (iii) length of long chord, (iv) mid-ordinate and (v) apex distance.
solution
47
Self-guided xercise:
The two straight portions of the road meet at an external deflection angle of 127 o30’. Calculate
the external distance (E) and mid ordinate (M) necessary to set out the circular curve of 15
chains in order to join these portions without passing through the vertex.
c) METHOH OF SET OUT HORIZONTAL CURVES
The various methods used for setting curves may be broadly classified as:
- Linear methods
- Angular methods.
- Coordinate method
1. Linear methods
The following are some of the linear methods used for setting out simple circular curves:
 By Offsets or Ordinate from the long chord

 Successive bisection of chord/arc
 Offsets from the tangents–perpendicular or radial
 Offsets from the chords produced.
i) Offsets or Ordinate from the long chord
In this method, long chord is divided into an even number of equal parts. Taking centre of long
chord as origin, for various values of x, the perpendicular offsets are calculated to the curve and
the curve is set in the field by driving pegs at those offsets.
48
Referring to the above figure, let
R = radius of the curve
L =length of long chord
O0 = mid-ordinate
Ox = ordinate at distance x from the mid-point of long chord
Ordinate at distance x = Ox = E¢O – DO
Exercise:
From the following two tangents, calculate length of each offset from chord needed to set out the
curve:
49
Solution: Data determination
 Number of offset = 200/20 = 10 offsets
Offsets calculation at 20m interval “x”:
50
(ii) Successive bisection of chord/arc
In this method, points on a curve are located by bisecting the chords and erecting the
perpendiculars at the mid-point. Referring to the figure below:
Perpendicular offset at middle of long chord (D) is:
Let D1 be the middle of T1C. Then Perpendicular offset
Similarly,
 Using symmetry points on either side, a circular curve may be set.
(iii) Offsets from the tangents–perpendicular or radial
The offsets from tangents may be calculated and set to get the required curve. The offsets can be
either radial or perpendicular to tangents.
51
(i) Radial offsets: Referring to the previous figure above, if the centre of curve O is accessible
from the points on tangent, this method of curve setting is possible.
2. Angular methods.( Instrumental method)
The following are the angular methods which can be used for setting circular curves:
* Rankine method of tangential (deflection) angles OR One theodolite method.

* Two-theodolite method
* Tacheometric method
In these methods linear as well as angular measurements are used. Hence, the surveyor needs
chain/tape and instruments to measure angles. Theodolite is the commonly used instrument.
These methods are briefly explained in this chapter
(i) Rankine method or One theodolite method. (use of tangential /deflection angles)
The most common method of locating a curve in the field is by deflection angles. Typically, the
theodolite is set up at the BC, and the deflection angles are turned from the tangent line. See the
figure below ullistrating the method:
(ii)Two-theodolite method
This method is very useful in the absence of chain or tape and also when ground is not
favourable for accurate chaining. This is simple and accurate method but requires essentially two
instruments and two surveyors to operate upon them, so it is not as commonly used as the
method of deflection angles.
In this method, the property of circle ‘that the angle between the tangent and the chord equals the
angle which that chord subtends in the opposite segment’ is used.
52
Let D, E, F, etc. be the points on the curve. The angle (Δ 1) between the tangent T1B and the
chord T1D i.e. ∠BT1 D = ∠T1T2D. Similarly, ∠BT1E = ∆2 = ∠T1T2 E, and ∠BT1F = ∆3 = ∠T1T2F
etc. The total deflection angles ∆1, ∆2, ∆3, etc. are calculated from the given data as in the first
method (i.e. as in Rankine’s method of deflection angles).
d) EXAMPLE OF SETTING OUT OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
There are various methods to set out curves. However, when rural roads designed for low traffic
volumes are set out it is usually sufficient to follow existing tracks and to improve existing
curves where necessary.
Two simple methods to set out circular curves for minor road class (access road) using only a
tape measure, pegs and strings are described here below. The following figure shows how a
circular curve with a 30 metre radius is set out. If the radius is increased upto about 2000m
especially for high class roads (example: arterial road), other methods (rankine method for
example) can be adopted as the curve center becomes thus inaccessible to a string. This method
can only be applied when the area around the curve is easily accessible.
53
Points B and C are called tangent points.
B-D and C-D are called tangents.
A parabolic curve can be set out as shown in figure 50. This curve should be set out from equal
tangents, so that the steeper portion is not pushed nearer to one tangent than to the other.
The method of setting out is as follows:
(1) The point of intersection of the tangents (D) is determined. Then, the most suitable
length of the tangents is set out and measured;
(2) Pegs are put to show the tangent points B and C;
(3) Each tangent is divided into equal number of parts and numbered as shown above;
54
(4) The points on the curve are found as the intersections of lines 1-1 with 2-2, 2-2 with
3-3 and 3-3 with 4-4.
After the centre-line of the road has been established, reference pegs are placed 1
metre outside the formation as shown in figure below. The chainage is marked on these pegs,
which are used to plan, organise and measure the work during the construction period.
After the road has been constructed these pegs will serve as useful references to the maintenance
supervisors.
2.3.2.2. Vertical curves

Just as a circular curve is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical curves
connect two gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either convex or concave. The
former is called a summit curve, while the latter is called a valley curve.
Due to changes in grade in vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to introduce vertical

curve at the intersections of different grades to smooth out the vertical profile.
It has the following equation: Y = X2/2R
Where: Y = Vertical distance from the grade line to the curve (m).
X = Horizontal distance from start of vertical curve (m).
R = Radius of circular curve that is approximated by the parabola (m).
The vertical alignment of the road has a strong influence upon: construction cost, the operation
cost and on the number of accidents. The two major elements of vertical alignment are the
gradient which is related to the vehicle performance and level of service, and the vertical curve.
The vertical curves used in highway can be classified into two categories:
a) Sag curve: It is also named “Concave” and it can be presented by:

i. A downgrade followed by an upgrade (- and +)
ii. An upgrade followed by another upgrade (+ and +)
iii. A downgrade followed by another downgrade (- and -)
b) Crest curve: It is also named “Summit” or “Convex” and it can be formed by:
i. An upgrade followed by a downgrade (+ and -)
55
ii. An upgrade followed by another upgrade (+ and +)
iii. A downgrade followed by another downgrade (- and -)
1. SETTING OUT OF THE VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The setting out of the vertical alignment of a road in hilly and mountainous terrain calls for a lot
of experience. Major earthworks can be avoided if the contours of the terrain are followed to the
greatest extent possible. This can often be done in the case of rural roads. Naturally the
maximum allowable gradients should not be exceeded.
The vertical alignment of rural roads in hilly/mountainous terrain can, in principal, be set out
with a level and boning rods. In this type of terrain the survey pegs show the future level of the
road.
56
When the survey pegs have been set out it is the task of the supervisor to place the pegs showing
where the excavation has to start. It is good practice to place such pegs a fixed distance (say 0.5
metres) outside the area where the excavation has to take place (figure 33). To guide the
workers, multi-purpose pegs can be set at the exact place where excavation has to start. These
pegs are then connected with strings.
2. SETTING A SAG CURVE:
a) First method: (|−r|=|+ r| )
Taking a difference between cumulative distances of the point “M” and “N”, the maximum
value of “X” is obtainable. Replacing the obtained value in the parabola equation “Y=x 2/2R”, a
value of “Y” is also determined. This means that the curve will be found taking different
values of “X” which is not greater than its maximum.
57
Elevation of point “A” is calculated by: HA = HN –ΔZ + YA
Before calculating the elevation of “A”, the following value should be calculated:
ΔZ = XA*r → where “r” is the tangent gradient.
In the formula “HA = HN –ΔZ + YA”, signs depend on tangent direction and curve type.
b) Second method: (|−r|≠|+ r|)
 For a downgrade (g) followed by an upgrade (h):

R R
XS = (g – h) and YS = ( g∗h )
2 2
 For an upgrade (h1) followed by another upgrade (h2) :
R R
XS = (h1+h2) and YS = (h1 * h2)
2 2
 For a downgrade (g1)followed by another downgrade (g2):
R R
XS = (g1+g2) and YS = (g1 * g2)
2 2
58
Elevation of origin “O” is equal to “HS + YS”, its cumulative distance being “S ± XS”. Thus,
coordinates of intermediate points can easily be calculated by assuming “XA” which is equal
to the difference between the origin “O” and the point to calculate on the curve.
3. SETTING A CREST CURVE:
(Case of an upgrade (r1) followed by another upgrade (r2))
R
 Tangent length: T = (r1 – r2)
2
R R
 Origin “O” coordinates: XS = (r1 ± r2) and YS = (r1 * r2)
2 2
 Coordinates of any point “A” on the curve: YS = (XA) 2/2R
Where: “XA” is the assumed distance which should not be greater than “XS
+ T”.
Examples:
1. For a sag curve of longitudinal profile, it is required to connect a horizontal line with
a gradient and an upward slope (r 2) of 4% by a parabolic curve. If the tangent length
T=40m:
a) Calculate the total length of connecting
b) Calculate the coordinates Xs and Ys of summit of the parabolic curve.
59
c) Calculate the ordinate Y of point A set at 30m from summit of the parabolic
curve.
Solution:
a) Total length of connecting: L=2T= 40*2=80m
R
b) Tangent length (T) = (r1 - r2)
2
R
40 = ∨¿(0.00 – 0.04)|
2
80
→R= =¿ 2000m
0.04
R 2000
Xs = (r1 - r2) = ∨¿(0.00 - 0.04)|= 40m
2 2
R 2000
Ys = (r1 *r2) = (0.00 * 0.04) = 0.00m
2 2
c) YA = XA2/2R = 302/2*2000 = 900/4000 = 0.225m
2. Calculate the necessary data to connect an upgrade of 4% followed by another upgrade

of 1% with a parabolic curve, if the normal curve radius is 2000m. With the help of
drawing, detail the connecting procedure.
Solution:
R 2000
Tangent length (T) = (r1 - r2) = (0.04 – 0.01) = 30m
2 2
R 2000
Origin coordinates: XS = (r1 + r2) = (0.04 + 0.01) = 50m
2 2
R 2000
YS = (r1 *r2) = (0.04 * 0.01) = 0.40m
2 2
2
X∗A
Coordinates of any point on the curve: YA ¿
2R
Maximum value of XA=T + XS = 30 + 50 = 80m

 If, XA=80 then YA = 802/4000 = 1.6m
 If, XA=70 then YA = 702/4000 = 1.22m
 If, XA=60 then YA = 602/4000 = 0.9m
 If, XA=50 then YA = 502/4000 = 1.62m
 If, XA=40 then YA = 402/4000 = 0.4m
 If, XA=30 then YA = 302/4000 = 0.22m
60
 If, XA=20 then YA = 202/4000 = 0.1m
 If, XA=10 then YA = 102/4000 = 0.025m
61
62
3. It is provided to connect an upward slope (r 1) of 4% and a downward slope (r 2) of 6% for a
parabolic curve to set. The origin of this parabola is M and the end is N. The length of
tangent is T=60m.
a) What is the length of connecting?
b) Find the coordinates Xs and Ys of summit of the parabolic curve.
c) For X1 =10m and X2 =20m, find the ordinates Y1 and Y2 respectively.
Solution:
a) T= 60m; L =2T= 120m
120
b) R = 2T/ (r1+r2)= =¿1200m
0.04+0.06
R 1200
Xs = (r1 - r2) = ∨¿(0.04 - 0.06)| = 12m
2 2
R 1200
Ys = (r1 *r2) = (0.04 * 0.06) = 1.44m
2 2
100
c) For X1 = 10m, Y1= (X1)2/2R= =0.042 m
2400
400
d) For X2 = 20m, Y2= (X2)2/2R= =0.166 m
2400
4. If the normal radius of curvature (R) is 3000m, workout a parabolic curve to connect two
tangents A and B with 3% downgrade and 5% upgrade, respectively.
5. Calculate four intermediates points necessary to set a sag curve connecting two straights
3% grade each. The connecting length is 250m, the normal curve radius being 500m.
2.3.3. Set gradients
A road gradient is a longitudinal slope provided to the formation level of a road along its
alignment. “Gradient of road is defined as the rate of rising or falls along the length of the road
with respect to the horizontal alignment”.
2.3.3.1. Factors to consider for road gradient
 The type of road surface
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 Drainage required
 Nature of the ground
 Nature of the traffic
 Safety required
 Road and railway interaction
 Bridge approaches
 The total height to be covered
2.3.3.2. Maximum tangent gradient and lengths

Gradients should be chosen such that construction cost and operating costs of the heavy
vehicles ascending them is minimized. For access roads with low levels of traffic (less than
about 20 vehicles per day), it is appropriate to use the maximum gradient that a vehicle can
climb safely.
Four-wheel drive vehicles can climb gradients in excess of 20 per cent, while small
commercial vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent gradient. Two-wheel drive trucks can
tackle gradients of 15–16 per cent, except when heavily laden. These maximum traversable
gradients are extremely steep and, if possible, all gradients should be much less severe.
On roads with an earth surface, particular soil types may give rise to slippery conditions during
rains and even moderate gradients of around 5 per cent can be very difficult to negotiate.
Gradients of 10 per cent or over will usually need to be paved to avoid slippery conditions and
to facilitate pavement maintenance.
The minimum longitudinal gradient is normally taken as 0.5% considering the drainage
criteria. Maximum values can be judged from the following tables experienced by AASHTO:
ROAD TERRAIN MAXIMUM MAXIMUM LENGTH OF
FUNCTION GRADIENT (%) STRAIGHT (m)
Level 4 -
Arterial road Rolling 5 to 7 600
Mountainous 7 to 9 400
Level 5 -
Collector road Rolling 5 to 7 -
Level 7 -
Access road Rolling 7 to 9 -
Where the length of critical grade is exceeded, climbing lanes are provided to enable faster
vehicles to overtake more easily, resulting in shorter average journey times and reduced
vehicle-operating costs.
2.3.4. Initial steps for marking levels on pegs
64
Assemble of the recorded levels
Identification of the levels
- Level offset with plus sign

An offset is a short distance measurement along and perpendicular to the chain line to the
object of interest.
- Level offset with minus sign
2.3.5. Types of level marking on pegs
o Mark levels with a plus sign
Peg in surveying is also known as survey peg or survey stakes or survey marking stakes.
Wooden pegs are used for marking the points and boundaries of the residential or
industrial site. Due to the pointed ends of the peg, it can be easily installed on the ground
o Mark levels with minus sign
2.3.6. Chainage offset
Chainage is (surveying) a distance measured along such a line while offset is (surveying) a short
distance measured at right angles from a line actually run to some point in an irregular boundary,
or to some object.
65
 Within groups, trainees discuss on how to set curves and calculate their
elements.
 Trainees set curves after calculating all required curves elements.
Points to Remember
Learning out come 2: formative assessment

Written assessment
Calculations:
66
Learning outcome 3: Delineate road profiles
Learning outcome 3
3.1. Demarcation of road width
3.2. Demarcation of horizontal profile
3.3. Demarcation of vertical profile
Duration: 20hrs
By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:
3.1. Demarcate conveniently road width with respect to the drawing.
3.2. Demarcate conveniently horizontal profile with respect to cross section elements.
3.3. Demarcate accurately vertical profile with respect to road drawings.
Resources
 Computers  Shovel or spade  Maps,
 Dumpy level,  Hammer  Drawings,
 Plumb bob,  Tape measure,  Pegs
 PPE
 Printers
 Projection screen
 Projector
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 Staff,
 Tripod,
 A levelled terrain and prepared drawings
Indicative content 3.1: Interpretation of construction drawings
Demarcation refers to the lines and markings on the floor as pointers/guides to visitors and staff.
There are many forms such as health and safety signs, pedestrian walkways or areas that are out
of bounds/No entry. The purpose of demarcated areas are to remind people of the health and
safety rules that are in place. In addition, demarcation markings are ideal for separating one
larger space into different areas/zones.
3.1.1. Elements of road width
3.1.2. Procedures of road width demarcation
3.1.3. Elements of carriageway
3.1.4. Procedures of carriageway demarcation
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 Ask trainees to explain the………………………………..

 Each group of trainees demonstrate …………..
Points to Remember:
Indicative content 3.2: Demarcation of horizontal profile
3.2.1. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Spacing and Placement In tangent sections PMDs should be placed 200 to 500 feet (61 to 153
meters) apart in a continuous line not less than 2 feet (0.6 meters) or more than 8 feet (2.4
meters) outside the edge of the usable shoulder. Delineators should also be placed on the outside
of curves having a radius of 1,000 feet (305 meters) or less, including medians in divided
highways and freeway ramp curves.
3.2.2.
CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF A PAVEMENT
The characteristics of cross-sectional elements are important in highway

geometric design because they influence the safety and comfort. The 7 basic
cross sectional elements of a highway pavement are
1. Camber
2. Width of Carriage way
3. Kerb
4. Road Margin
5. Width of Formation
69
6. Right of Way (ROW
1.CAMBER
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface
in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The
objectives of providing camber are:
 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
 Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured
in 1 in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of
pavement surface. The values suggested by IRC for various categories of
pavement are given in Table 1. The common types of camber are parabolic,
straight, or combination of them (See Figure shown below).
70
2.WIDTH OF CARRIAGE WAY
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width
of the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the
width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating
speed and safety.
71
The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side
clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of lane width
of 3.75 m for a single lane road.
However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on both side and 1.06 m
in the center. Therefore, a two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter for
each lane.
3.KERBS
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or
islands or footpaths. Different types of kerbs are shown in the figure below.
LOW OR MOUNTABLE KERBS
These types of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to
remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the
shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above
the pavement edge with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is
usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and also helps in
longitudinal drainage.
SEMI-BARRIER TYPE KERBS
When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is
15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of
parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb
with some difficulty.
BARRIER TYPE KERBS
They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They are
provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are
placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
72
SUBMERGED KERBS
They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges
between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement
and stability to the pavement.
4.ROAD MARGINS
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be
generally called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are
given below.
SHOULDERS
Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles
and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The shoulder should
be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet
conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space
around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the
shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural
highways in India.
PARKING LANES
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking
lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.
BUS-BAYS
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided
so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They
should be at least 75 meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near
the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
SERVICE ROADS
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like
freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be
usually isolated by a separator and access to the highway will be provided only
at selected points. These roads are provided to avoid congestion in the
expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.
CYCLE TRACK
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is
high Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1
meter for every additional track.
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FOOTPATH
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas.

They are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian
traffic and vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be
increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be either as smooth as the
pavement or smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath.
GUARD RAILS
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Various
designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones painted in alternate black and
white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves at night under
headlights of vehicles.
5.WIDTH OF FORMATION
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or
carriage way including separators and shoulders. This does not include the
extra land in formation/cutting. The values suggested by IRC are given in
Table 3.
6. RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road,
along its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-
sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future
development.
To prevent ribbon development along highways, control lines and building lines
may be provided. Control line is a line which represents the nearest limits of
future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road.
74
The right of way width is governed by:
 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width

of roadway and road margins.
 Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the
topography and the vertical alignment.
 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the
slope, soil type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography
etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the
visibility on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of some
obstructions like building structures etc.
 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in
advance anticipating future developments like widening of the road.
 Trainees brainstorm about steps of types and requirements of an ideal damp-proof.

 Trainees discuss about steps of setting out and levelling first course brick.

 A group of trainees set out and level the first brick layer and lay dry bricks.
Points to Remember:
 Before laying brick walls, it is recommended to lay a damp proof course above
the foundation to limit access of raising damp to the first brick course of wall.
 Damp Proofing material should be durable, dimensionally stable, reasonably
cheap, remains steady and impervious.
 Steps of setting out and levelling first course brick:
 Wall squareness may be checked using 3, 4, 5 method or diagonal method.
75
Indicative content 3.3: Demarcated vertical profile
1.VERTICAL CURVES
Vertical Curve means an area of the roadway where the vehicle's direction of
travel changes in a vertical plane
Those curves that change the alignment or direction are known as horizontal
curves, and those that change the slope are vertical curves.
2.VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
A vertical alignment is a parabolic curve that is applied to make a smooth
and safe transition between two grades on a roadway or a highway.or it can
the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road.It consists of grades and
vertical curve and it influences the vehicle speed,deceleration,SSD,and comfort
of vehicle movements at high speed.A verticle curve provides a smooth
transition between two tangent.Bolow is the example of vertical alignment .
Marking techniques:
1. Marking the project line
2. Marking cumulative distance
3. Positive marking
4. Negative marking
Vertical Profile
The vertical profile of a highway is made up of straight lines (grade lines) and curves,
as shown in the following figure.
1.
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2. c
The curves joining the grade lines are called vertical curves, and their function is to
make a smooth transition from one grade to another. Details of designing sag and
crest vertical curves are presented in the chapter "Geometric Design".
During or after completion of the detail base map (see Surveys and Maps), the traffic
engineer prepares a vertical profile of the alignment. Information needed to create a
vertical profile includes the vertical curve data and the elevations of the existing
ground surface along the chosen route. The first step is to draw the existing ground
level along the centerline of the proposed alignment, with elevation data on the
vertical scale. Then draw the centerline of the alignment on the profile, as shown
below:
At a minimum, data included with the centerline are the elevation and stations of all
points of intersection and the lengths of vertical curves. The Excel demonstration
77
provided with this concept uses station notation and elevation information to
develop a vertical crest curve and the accompanying information.
 Trainees brainstorm about different types of brick bonds.

 Trainees in pair lay different types of bricks dry bonds.
Points to Remember (Take home message)
There exist different types of brick bond such English, dutch, row lock, rat trap,
Flemish, stretcher, header, stack, American, facing, raking, and zigzag bonds.
78
Written assessment
Multiple choice
Question 1: Based on relationship between elements of list 1 and list 2, circle the only
one correct answer that possess the right four codes/digits:
List 1
A. Voussoirs
B. Crown
C. Soffit
D. Intrados
List 2
1. The topmost point of the arch
2. Inner surface of the arch
3. Wedged shaped masonry units used in arches
4. The inner curve of the arch
Codes:
Circle the best combination A B C D
a) 1 2 3 4
b) 3 1 2 4
c) 4 3 2 1
d) 2 4 3 1
Essay:
1) What are the functions of arches?
2) Give relative merits of lintels over the arches.
3) Write a brief note on the classification of arches
4) Enumerate, with the help of sketches, various types of arches based on shape.
5) With the help of a neat sketch, demonstrate various components of the arch work.
79
Calculations:
1) Determine the number of burnt standard bricks (215mm x 102.5mm x 65mm) required to
erect a dry header bonded partition wall of 2m length, 1m high and 21.5cm thick.
2) How many burnt standard bricks (215mm x 102.5mm x 65mm) required for erecting
three isolated squared piers each of 210cm high with 21.5cm thick? What will be the
required number if the first pier remains constant, the second changed in 1 and ½ brick
pier and the third built as a 2 bricks pier?
3) Calculate the length and volume of a segmental arch whose 4m span, 1m height, 0.30m
width and thickness of 0.25m.
4) Determine the length and volume of a semi-circular arch whose 3m span, 1m height,
0.30m width and thickness of 0.20m.
Task:
Sunlight bakery located in your district has a tender of erecting its stove made of burnt brick
Dutch bonded walls.
As technician in renewable energy sector, you won a tender of performing this work
comprised of setting out and erect walls of oven, within 6hours.
All materials, tools and equipment are available at Sunlight bakery. Pointing is not needed
because of future plastering. Cement mortar mixing ratio of 1: 3 must be respected.
Stove plans:
80
81
Pre-requisite:
o A well prepared slab foundation
o 2 Wooden or Precast lintels
o 2 fire resistant sheet metals
o 1 person working as helper
Resources:
Tape measure, square, builder’s line, wheelbarrow, trowel, spade, straight edge, cement, sands,
water, bucket, PPE, mallet, bricks, spirit level, brush and oil, wooden or precast lintel.
82
Checklist:
Criteria Indicators Score Observation

Yes No
1. Proper selection of materials, tools and equipment
Quality of is well done
process Preparation (cleaning and arranging) of working
area is well done ……/6
Mortar ingredients are well batched and mixed
Setting walls is effectively done
Laying bricks is well done
Plans are well interpreted
2. Uniformity of joints is respected
Quality of Verticality is observed
product Squareness is observed ……/7
Levelness is observed
Dutch bond is respected
Measurements are respected
Mixing ratio is respected
3. PPE is appropriately won
Relevance Materials, tools and equipment are not wasted ……/4
Cleaning after work is well done
Time is well managed
Competent …………%
Written assessment
1. Enumerate eight principal workplace preparation methods that can be adopted on
construction site.
83
2. Illustrate the common procedures of setting out the surface area, before starting plaster
application.
3. Recommend any six characteristics of wall surface before the first coat of plaster can be
applied on it.
4. Differentiate clearly between dot and screed used in brick wall plastering.
5. Explain briefly, in six steps, how the plaster is applied.
6. Explain clearly the process of tiles laying using thinset mortar.
7. Discuss about ten tips of tiles application using cement mortar.
8. Differentiate clearly between three types of mortar that can be used for pointing masonry
wall.
9. Differentiate clearly the term pointing and jointing used during brick wall erection.
10. With seven arguments, discourage pointing in masonry wall construction.
11. What do you know about “3Rs” adopted for waste materials removal from construction
site?
12. In short, discuss about different methods of cleaning tools after construction work.
Integrated situation
The district of Nyaruguru wants to construct a 20 km of unpaved road in Nyabimata sector to

facilitate the population to reach their fields. Therefore, the District has signed a contract with
NTBD Ltd company to perform the said works.
As a public works technician from the foresaid company you are required to set this road
alignment on a section of 150m long. You have to accomplish this task within 8 hours.
In addition, the feeder road should have two lanes of 3m of width each.
o You are required to provide a walkway of 1m of width and a side ditch of 40 cm of depth
and 50cm of width that should be provided on the whole length of the feeder road.
o You are required to make the chainage offset at each 10 m.
o You are required to set horizontal and vertical curves where necessary
All Resources: Tools, instruments/ equipment and materials are available on site.
All Contact facilities for public infrastructures are available
Resources:
GPS, dumpy level, staff level, tripod, plumb bob, tape measure, helmet, reflector jacket, safety
shoes, overall, umbrella, Maps, drawings, pegs, Hoe, pang, spade, wheelbarrow, range rod,
hammer.
Checklist:
84
Criteria Indicators Score Observation
Yes No
1.1.Topographic map is Elements of Topographic map are
Appropriately interpreted properly interpreted
with Use of topographic map is ……/6
reference to the appropriately explained
topographic area.
1.2.Road basic drawing Road basic drawings are properly
properly interpreted with interpreted
respect to the Horizontal profile drawings are
……/15
standard properly interpreted
Vertical profile drawings are
properly interpreted
1.3.Tools, Tools are properly selected
instrument/equipment Equipment are properly selected
and materials are Materials are properly selected ……/3
properly selected in
relation to the work
1.4. Safety measures are Personal protective equipment are
efficiently applied with appropriately applied
respect to the work. Types of traffic signs on work are
properly used ……/10
Safety consideration on
environmental conditions at work
are properly checked
1.5.The working area is The working area is properly
properly prepared with cleared ……/2
respect to the work
2.1.Instruments are The initial steps of data
accurately set as per setting recording are appropriately
techniques followed
……/16
Staff reading are properly recorded
Calculations related to data
recording are well calculated
2.3.Levels are adequately Initial steps for marking levels on
marked on pegs with pegs are properly followed
reference to the recorded Level marking on pegs are ……/14
data accurately marked
Chainage offset is properly set
85
3.1. Road width is Elements of road width are
conveniently demarcated properly interpreted
with respect to the drawing
Procedures of road width ……/7
demarcation are properly followed
Road width is precisely
demarcated
3.2.Horizontal profile is Horizontal alignment elements are
conveniently precisely demarcated
demarcated with respect Cross-section elements are
……/11
to cross section properly demarcated
elements sight distance elements are
precisely delineated
3.3.Vertical profile is Vertical alignment elements are
accurately demarcated with accurately demarcated
respect to road drawings Vertical curves are precisely
……/10
demarcated
Sight distance element are
properly delineated
Time is well respected
Competent …………%
References:
1. Daniel J. Findley, Bastian J. Schroeder, Christopher M. Cunningham, Thomas H. Brown, Jr -
Highway
engineering planning, design, and operations Elsevier_Butterworth Heinemann (2016)
2. 2. Fred L. Mannering, Scott S. Washburn - Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic
AnalysisWiley
(2013)
3. SANRAL Geometric Design Guideline-The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
in
South Africa (2013)
4. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th Edition AASHTO. Washington,
D.C. 2011.
5. Traffic Engineering Handbook, 6th Edition Institute of Transportation Engineers. Washington,
D.C.
2008.
6. Russell C. Brinker & Paul R. Wolf. Harper & Row. Elementary Surveying, 6th Edition New
York. 1977.
7. Standard Roadway Drawings Tennessee Department of Transportation.
86
8. RS 435: Timber in joinery — General requirements,
9. RS EAS 23: Timber — Dimensions for coniferous sawn timber (cypress and pine) — Sizes of
sawn
and planed timber — Specification,
10. RS ISO 20347: Personal protective equipment — Occupational footwear; RS 175:
wheelbarrow
specifications;
11. RS EAS 914: Mild steel nails — Specification;
12. RS EAS 132: Hoe — Specification;
13. RS 409: School chalks — Specification;
14. RS EAS 132: Hoe — Specification;
15. RS EAS 1020: Shovels and spades — Specification
16. RS 435: Timber in joinery — General requirements,
17. RS EAS 23: Timber — Dimensions for coniferous sawn timber (cypress and pine) — Sizes of
sawn
and planed timber — Specification,
18. RS ISO 20347: Personal protective equipment — Occupational footwear;
19. RS 175: wheelbarrow specifications
87

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RQF LEVEL 3

MODULE CODE: PWORA301

Learning outcome 3 objectives:..............................................................................67

Theoretical learning Activity..............................................................................69

Practical learning Activity..............................................................................69

Theoretical learning Activity..............................................................................75

Practical learning Activity..............................................................................75

Practical learning Activity............................................................................78

Learning out come 3: formative assessment..................................................79

Learning out come 4: formative assessment..................................................84

DPC: Dump proof course

Learning Outcome 1: Prepare for field work

Learning outcome 1 objectives:

Indicative content 1. 1: Interprétations of topographic map

a) Basic terminologies of topographic map

 Map: is a diagrammatic representation of an area of land or sea showing physical

b) Elements of a topographic map

On a map, elevations (vertical distances) can be represented by several methods such as

 Contour lines close together indicate “Steep slope”.

 Depressions between summits is called a saddle. It is represented by four (4) sets of

 Trace of contour gradients and route location.

Practical learning Activity

 Terminologies of topographic map

Indicative content 1.2: Interpretation of road basic drawings

1.2.1.1. Longitudinal profile of the ground:

Where: CI = Contour Interval (in metres) HE = Horizontal equivalent (in

N ALTITUDE DISTANCES DISTANCE CUMMULATIV SLOPE

1 90 – 80 20 100 100 10.00 -

1 A-b 90 – 80 100 100 10.00 125.00

c) Interpretation of longitudinal profile of the ground:

A Lane for vehicles.

ROAD ROLLING AND LEVEL TERRAINS MOUNTAINOUS TERRAINS

Arterial 10 – 13 6 – 7.5 ≥2 8 – 10 6 – 7.5 ≥1

Practical learning Activity

 Longitudinal profile of the ground

1.3.1. Method of clearing working area

Theoretical learning Activity

Practical learning Activity

1.4.1. Select materials

1. Builder’s line or string:

1.4.2. Select tools

5) Right Angled Scales

Figure below shows how the new level is found:

They can be used for various purposes:

How to measure a gradient with a triangle set?

 Know the required gradient

To manufacture the gradient template you need:

- Four pieces of wooden lath (length approx. 60 cm);

10) The straight-edge

An easy way to measure a gradient (short distanced) is to use a straight-edge in combination

11) A camber board

1.4.3. Select equipment

Theoretical learning Activity

Practical learning Activity

Indicative content 1.5: Application of safety measures

Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is equipment worn to minimize

1.5.2. Safety consideration on environmental conditions at work

1.5.2.1. The basics of safety

Theoretical learning Activity

Practical learning Activity

Circle the letter that corresponds to the required answer

1) PPE can be classified based on their functions such as, except:

a) Respiratory and ear protection